Palamon Love Essay

Palamon wants Arcite to let his eyes of Emily and not interfere, but Arcite says â€Å"l loved her first as women and on my head I swear, love is a greater law than any other that may be given to any earthly man. † (pg. 89) love replaces all other commitments. They both show each other how much they love Emily. Later on, they both somehow manage to get out of prison. First, Arcite got out and after seven years Palamon. They both suddenly meet at grove in ngry looks and want to fight for Emily, while Theseus appearing there too with his wife and Emily. At first Theseus wanted to kill them, but seeing the situation of theirs he changes his mind and sets up arena for them to fght. They both are ready to do anything to grant Emily as wife. Then, Theseus builds 3 temples. Venus (the goddess of love), Mars (the god of war), and Diana (the goddess of chastity). Palamon went to Venus to ask to get Emily, Arcite went to Mars to ask to win the war, and Emily went to Diana to ask to say virgin or else marry a guy love her the most. After that, the battle begun and Arcite won the war with the help of the god that he visited, and Palamon lost, but in the end Palamon won and got Emily. Palamon won because of Pluto who sent earthquake at Saturn’s request for Venus. Arcite dies because of earthquake and fell from his horse and hits his head to ground. He died as noble knight to get Emily, and didn’t care about his brotherhood relationship with Palamon while fghing against him for Emily. The knight is noble, conqueror, gentle and has pity, which he is similar to Theseus the character in the story that he is telling. The gentle duke jumped down from his horse with pitying heart as he heard them speak†. (pg. 77) Theseus takes pity on those women that he meets on his way and gives what the women asked for. Which it looks like that the Knight is describing himself as Theseus. He likes fghting from the beginning so he made arrangement for Arcite and Palamon to fght over Emily. The story starts with battle of Amazons and after he marries the queen of Amazon as price of winning a battle besides the story also ends with Palamon marrying Emily in which he also get her by winning the battle.

Literature: China Essay

The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the earliest known literary works. This Babylonian epic poem arises from stories in the Sumerian language. Although the Sumerian stories are older (probably dating to at least 2100 B.C.), it was probably composed around 1900 BC. The epic deals with themes of heroism, friendship, loss, and the quest for eternal life. Different historical periods are reflected in literature. National and tribal sagas, accounts of the origin of the world and of customs, and myths which sometimes carry moral or spiritual messages predominate in the preurban eras. The epics of Homer, dating from the early to middle Iron age, and the great Indian epics of a slightly later period, have more evidence of deliberate literary authorship, surviving like the older myths through oral tradition for long periods before being written down. As a more urban culture developed, academies provided a means of transmission for speculative and philosophical literature in early civilizations, r esulting in the prevalence of literature in Ancient China, Ancient India, Persia and Ancient Greece and Rome. Many works of earlier periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra or the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Drama and satire also developed as urban culture provided a larger public audience, and later readership, for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in East Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs. Over a long period, the poetry of popular pre-literate balladry and song interpenetrated and eventually influenced poetry in the literary medium. In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of modern paper making and woodblock printing, produced one of the world’s first print cultures.[1] Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of Thought period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769-269 BCE). The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, o f Mohism, of Legalism, as well as works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu’s The Art of War) and Chinese history (e.g. Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed court records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient China was  the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BCE, and attributed to the blind 5th century BCE historian Zuo Qiuming. In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1500–1000 BCE, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the â€Å"circum-Vedic† texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[2] The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two most influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD. In ancient Greece, the epics of Homer, who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, and Hesiod, who wrote Works and Days and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and most influential, of Ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato and Aristotle authored philosophical texts that are the foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho and Pindar were influential lyrical poets, and Herodotus and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in Ancient Greece, of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre.[3] Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German writer and author of the Faust books Roman histories and biographies anticipated the extensive mediaeval literature of lives of saints and miraculous chronicles, but the most characteristic form of the Middle Ages was the romance, an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with strong popular appeal. Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the Renaissance as a result of the invention of printing, while the mediaeval romance developed into a more character-based and psychological form of narrative, the novel, of  which early and important examples are the Chinese Monkey and the German Faust books. In the Age of Reason philosophical tracts and speculations on history and human nature integrated literature with social and political developments. The inevitable reaction was the explosion of Romanticism in the later 18th century which reclaimed the imaginative and fantastical bias of old romances and folk-literature and asserted the primacy of individual experience and emotion. But as the 19th-century went on, European fiction evolved towards realism and naturalism, the meticulous documentation of real life and social trends. Much of the output of naturalism was implicitly polemical, and influenced social and political change, but 20th century fiction and drama moved back towards the subjective, emphasising unconscious motivations and social and environmental pressures on the individual. Writers such as Proust, Eliot, Joyce, Kafka and Pirandello exemplify the trend of documenting internal rather than external realities. Genre fiction also showed it could question reality in its 20th century forms, in spite of its fixed formulas, through the enquiries of the skeptical detective and the alternative realities of science fiction. The separation of â€Å"mainstream† and â€Å"genre† forms (including journalism) continued to blur during the period up to our own times. William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson expanded documentary reporting into strong subjective statements after the second World War, and post-modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective realism in general.

Language The monster Essay

The setting makes the reader feel tense because the bad weather in chapter 5 gives the reader the idea that there is a sense that the atmosphere is very ominous and this gives the impression that something bad is going to happen, this type of omen gives the reader a tense feeling because it gives the reader an opportunity to pre-empt the fact that soon the tension will break and it will break into some kind of bad happening. An example of this is when in chapter 5 where there is a slight description of what is happening around the room, and outside the room â€Å"the rain pattered dismally against the panes, and my candle was nearly burnt out† this gives the impression to the reader that something big is soon to happen, because when your candle burnt out, you can’t see anything. Pathetic Fallacy is when someone gives inanimate features to an inanimate object, for example if you were to talk to a cushion as though it was a real person. Pathetic Fallacy gives the reader thee impression that Victor within chapter 5 feels very isolated and cannot talk to anyone, this is because he doesn’t want to tell anyone about his creation. Language The monster is described as having â€Å"yellow skin† and having a â€Å"shrivelled complexion and straight black lips† this explains that Victor’s creation has human features but they are presented in an inhuman way. The way that this creation is described is in the way that it isn’t human but it is a monster. This connotes that the monster is rather frightening to think about with his yellow skin and to think it is human is very scary. Victor thinks of his monster as scary and intimidating, although in chapter 5 Victor’s creation doesn’t actually do anything to Victor, he does actually run away from him when faced with him. â€Å"One hand was stretched out, seemingly to detain me, but I escaped and rushed downstairs. † This at this point of the story shows us that the monster is a bad thing to behold, that it was intending to seek revenge on Victor, but as the reader we don’t know really what is happening. Also we don’t actually know if Victor’s creation is actually as it says in the quote â€Å"trying to detain me† because he may be twisting the readers point of view, because of Victor being the narrator for most of the novel The reader associates monsters and devils with Victor’s monster because within chapter 5 when the monster is created. In the quote below gives a clear example of the creation being linked with omens and portents, â€Å"when, by the dim and yellow light of the moon, as it forced its way through the window shutters, I beheld the wretch†. This gives the impression that the creation is a sign of evil that is associated by the moon omen, because as well earlier in the chapter Victor claimed that the monster’s eyes appeared to be yellow like the moon. The full moon omen is an association with evil because it is supposed that when the full moon comes out all you can hear is the howling of a werewolf and that is a sign of evil The effect of oxymorons helps the reader with the description of Victor’s monster in chapter 5 â€Å"for example â€Å"but these luxuries only formed a more horrific contrast with his watery eyes† this quote is saying that victor made tried making his monster with â€Å"beautiful† characteristics but then says that these beautiful characteristics came out wrong â€Å"with his watery eyes†. This explains why Victor escapes from his creation later on in the chapter; he looks at the monsters hideous features and doesn’t take into account his interior. Victor within chapter 5 uses the fact that he is the narrator to his advantage, because of this Victor can say anything about the monster he wants and because he is the narrator the reader will believe this â€Å"one hand stretched out, seemingly to detain me† this is a prime example of manipulating the reader at this point, because the narrator says â€Å"seemingly to detain me† everyone believes it. This has an intriguing effect on the audience because the first thing you do as a reader is believe everything that the narrator says , however in this sense the narrator is can be very manipulative and can take advantage of what the reader may know or may not know. This is different to what victor originally thought of his monster, originally Victor thought that his monster would be a good idea because it is an original idea and everyone would praise him for the thing he had created, then if it turned out well then even more praise would come his way. â€Å"Although I possessed the capacity of bestowing animation, yet to prepare a frame for the reception of it† this is showing that victor thought of creating animation as a good idea and that he couldn’t wait to put it into practice. Originally Victor thought of his creation as a excellent idea and he wanted to be the inventor of a revolutionary idea, Victor wanted to be like god in a way, however as we find out through chapter 5 he doesn’t even want the credit for his invention There is an ammount of symbolism within chapter 5, for instance the idea that Victor created life from nothing is symbolic to religion and how god â€Å"apparently† created everything from nothing from his own power. â€Å"I collected the instruments of life around me† this gi—-ves the impression that victor thinks of himself as a god-like person, that maybe he thought after creating this he would be known in history. Conclusion I think that Mary Shelly did meet her aim to â€Å"curdle the blood and quicken the beatings of the heart† because the novel always keeps the reader on edge all of the time, the reader never knows what is coming next. For its time I think that the novel was rather frightening for its time because at that time no-one knew anything that we know in modern day science, so this novel would be what is called sci-fi in the modern day. Today of all the people that still read this novel they still find it a fascinating read because it is quite sci-fi like even to us now, we may now know that you won’t make life out of dead bodies using galvanism but it is still interesting.

Understanding & Analyzing Competing Values Framework Assignment

Understanding & Analyzing Competing Values Framework - Assignment Example Through these processes, the organization eventually achieves stability and control. Open Systems Model (OSM) emphasizes adaptability, growth, organic system, resources acquisition, and external support. The Rational Goal Model (RGM) emphasizes rational action with the major aspect being the realization of profit. The primary assumption of this quadrant is that planning as well as goal setting lead to outcomes namely efficiency and productivity. Human Relations Model (HRM) is founded on morale and cohesion with special emphasis on capacity building and human resource management (Cameron & Spreitzer 2012). Members of an organization act as cooperating members and not alienated individuals of a common social system. The Research/Study The efficiency and value of the models that help in understanding the structure is the primary goal of the research. The study further attempts to scrutinize and evaluate how various structures of the organization operate towards accomplishing the set obj ectives in the short term and long-term basis. Apparently, every business enterprise has distinct rationale and composition that helps in tackling fundamental challenges that have considerable chance to hamper the efforts and goals already set out by the management and employees (Cameron & Quinn 2011). The essential facet of the study was to establish suitable ways of inventing the framework. This would help in making the rationale become more effective notwithstanding other invisible challenges or factors. Understanding the task of the framework has become even much easier following discovery of two vital dimensions of efficiency in an organizational framework. The potential dangers and disapproval because of the contemporary criteria was another... This essay stresses that the efficiency and value of the models that help in understanding the structure is the primary goal of the research. The study further attempts to scrutinize and evaluate how various structures of the organization operate towards accomplishing the set objectives in the short term and long-term basis. Apparently, every business enterprise has distinct rationale and composition that helps in tackling fundamental challenges that have considerable chance to hamper the efforts and goals already set out by the management and employees. This paper makes a conclusion that The co-worker perceives me as someone who works productively, facilitates a more constructive working environment, manages stress and time, and develop and communicate vision. The co-worker has further developed firm conviction that I can set vital goals and objectives; prove to be instrumental in design and organization, project management, designing work, managing across functions, and controlling information overload, process and deliberate on management with critical thinking. Other skills include developing employees, effectual communication, understanding and appreciating people around as well as my efforts, conflict management, and team building. These self-assessment instruments have considerable influence on my capacity to improve personal output as well as efforts to integrate fresh ideas into the organization. Finally, the instruments would facilitate the process of building positive relationships with co-workers and the management notwit hstanding the realism about multiplicity of roles.

Pneumonia Dq question Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pneumonia Dq question - Assignment Example The predisposing factors for mucormycosis are kartoacidosis, uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, solid tumors, and renal failure. Pulmonary mucormycosis generally takes place inhaling the fungal sporangiospores. The medical interventions for treating mucormycosis involve 3-pronged integration of surgical and medical approaches, together with addressing predisposing underlying conditions (Spellberg & Edwards, 2012). 2. Some laboratory test values are abnormal. The pH value is 7.5 and this figure is high. The high pH values are abnormal and are mainly experienced among patients with high blood pressure (Kontoyiannis & Lewis, 2013). PaO2 is also abnormally low at 59mmHg. This illustrates a condition that is common among patients having pheumonia. 3. Three treatments are applied in patients with pulmonary mucormycosis. The treatments are; hyperbaric oxygen therapy, surgery and step down therapy. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy applies high concentration of oxygen, which hinders the development of mucorales in vitro. Surgery is also a treatment option. Sinus lesions are very significant and should be done with minimal delay, due to the aggressive characteristic of the mucor infection. Step down therapy entails treatment of parenteral lipid amphotericin B. The treatment is antifungal. The medications involve usage of antifungal agents. Classic antibiotics like echinocandins are commonly used. Amphotericin B is also applied as liposomal formulations, with the aim of minimizing toxicity (Bitar & Van,

Annotation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Annotation - Assignment Example Nonetheless, the other authors support a balance between prohibition and legalization while Angela Hawken advocates full legalization. One possible bias of this book is when Caulkins implies that the responsible majority users of marijuana should sacrifice their fun in order to aid the irresponsible minority. Nevertheless, he does not prove that prohibition has protected the minority irresponsible users. The article is based on the gateway hypothesis. It researches the prevention or invention and genetic factors of using other prohibited drugs after using marijuana. The gateway hypothesis implies that a marijuana user will commence using more lethal/ hard drugs at some point in their life. According to the study, marijuana users are most likely to try heroin and get addicted to it. As such, marijuana use makes it possible for the user to advance to more lethal and dangerous drugs. The authors used adolescents as part of the study. The study is biased since correlation is not always cause. Marijuana typically precedes rather than follow the initiation into other illegal drug use. However, alcohol use and underage smoking precede the use of marijuana. Therefore, marijuana is not the first gateway to illegal drug use. Khatapoush, Shereen, and Denise Hallfors. "â€Å"Sending the wrong message†: did medical marijuana legalization in California change attitudes about and use of marijuana?." Journal of Drug Issues 34.4 (2004): 751-770. The article suggests that the recent policy changes in California have had a minimal impact on the attitudes and behaviour related to marijuana. The authors in their study to assess and analyse the effect of legalizing medicinal marijuana among the youth used telephone survey data. Consequently, they found out that some marijuana behaviour and attitudes did change after proposition 215 in 1996 was passed. Conversely, marijuana use did not increase. The major possible bias of the study is that sanctioning the use of

Media imperialism PowerPoint Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Media imperialism - PowerPoint Presentation Example Media imperialism and cultural imperialism pose great negative effects not only to the local media but also the consumers of the content. The local media stand to lose since they may be swallowed or taken over by large media corporations. According to (Desai and Agrawa 2009, p. 19) cultural –media imperialism theories had predicted that the importation of television channels would lead to demise of local cultures and cultural industries without considering complex patterns of television production, distribution and consumption. Generally, a perception of cultural consequence of the control of various media products is based on a view that mass media as primarily manipulative agents capable of having direct, unmediated effects on the audience behavior and world view (Tomlinson 2002). He asserts that there are also good reasons for cultural-media imperialism especially for the Marxists in understanding domination of the media. The consumers tend to be influenced by the cultures of the dominant media. Such culture influence may be a threat to the National security of a Nation especially where the culture of terrorism is inculcated in the minds of the local consumers. In addition to this effect, the contents of the dominant media can also be biased. The media content may not capture the more pressing issues of the home country instead focus on the world news. In most cases world news coverage may not be of importance to the consumers of the home country. Such a state is dangerous to a state.

Fashion Retail Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Fashion Retail Marketing - Essay Example The essay "Fashion Retail Marketing" discovers the fashion retail marketing. This online retail brand has emerged as one of the favourite destination for youngsters, looking for fashionable and affordable brands. This report analyses the brand value and the strategies followed by the company. This section discusses the company objectives and the ethical policies it follows. In the next topic the financial details of the company are given. The company’s large product range has been highlighted. The positioning strategies of the company are discussed and analyses of their impact on the company’s operations have also been discussed. To find out the macro environment of the retail brand, PEST analysis is done. This will give a clear understanding of the current economic, social, political and technological changes within the country and how it has impacted the operations of the company. Value chain analysis gives a detailed layout of the flow of raw materials and other prod ucts from suppliers, to the warehouse, manufacturing and operational process and finally delivery of products to the customer doorsteps. The report also throws light on the marketing campaigns and strategies followed by the company. Though the online retailer has maintained a continuous growth in the online marketing sector, there are certain risks and challenges that lie ahead. Very retailer is one of UK’s prominent online and home shopping brands. It is an arm of One Shop online retailer which has a customer base of over five millions. and an annual turnover of over 1.7 billion pounds (Very, 2013). Very online brand was launched in the year 2009. The online retailer deals with categories such as apparels for men women and children, home and electrical appliances. The website of Very retailer in designed keeping high internet users in mind. The website provides customers with the opportunity of shopping across a range of product areas, from footwear and fashion to home and e lectrical and other accessories. To gain competitive advantage, Very online retailer has introduced a number of interactive marketing services, and innovative online marketing strategies to engage the customers on mobile channels (Wang, 2005). The retail brand believes in creating a workplace having a perfect balance between hard work and having fun. The company’s preferences lie in putting the customer first. The brand believes in treating its customers as well as employees well and making a difference by keeping things simple. The online retail brand thrives on four major brand values. Deliver- The retail brand thrusts upon getting results which satisfies the customer expectations as well as fulfils the organisational needs. Innovate- To make the business better, the company develops innovative ideas in the field of marketing campaigns, innovative advertising and branding ideas, inventing new categories and product range to meet the changing customer preferences. Courage- C ourage means doing activities which are of best interest to the company and challenging a process because it is not correct. It can be any process from finance to the supply chain process. Enthuse- The Company believes in creat

LAB report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Lab Report Example On the other hand, a dry density obtained through impacting of energy on the soil relies on the first initial content of water which is referred to as the moulding content of water. Getting to know the relationship between the moulding content of water and the achievable density is a topic that has been of concern for many years. The dry condition, and a moulding content water increase could lead into a high dry density compaction. The trend will continuous until when the maximum dry density is achieved at an optimum water content moulding. As the water increases, there would be a continuous dry density reduction. Such a reaction would be referred to as the curve of compaction. In order to gain a deeper insight concerning compaction, this experiment was set to investigate the compaction test. The sample mould base and mould mass would be determined to the nearest gram. The mould diameter and depth were measured. The mould depth was about 3 places where as the moulding diameter was about 6 places + or- 0.02 mm. The hammer, mass, proper drop, and square edges was checked for damages. A well-graded sand with fine that are less than five percent was used to ease the laboratory instruction. A material with particles that are oversize was selected to show the test aspects. Enough moist material was selected to give out approximately 12 kg of soil that is dry. The natural content of water was obtained. The amount of materials needed for the point of compaction was estimated. Five samples having contents of water separated by 1.5 percent were prepared. The water contents were adjusted such that they bracket the value that was optimum. The soil was tempered overnight to reduce the scatter in the data thus making it easy to define the curve of compaction. The compaction test was d one in respect to the standards of the ASTM test

The Necessary Being with the Idea of God Research Paper

The Necessary Being with the Idea of God - Research Paper Example The premises of Aquinas’ arguments are actually mostly mere assumptions. Firstly, on the first objection, it would not be valid to assume from God’s infinite goodness that there would be no evil. God’s infinite goodness, after all, may actually mean allowing evil to coexist with the good because God is so good that He allows the existence of everything, even that of evil. Secondly, God’s declaration of Himself in the Book of Exodus is actually a mere statement written by a human author, and so it cannot be taken as the word of God Himself. Thirdly, the statement that all things can be reduced to only one principle – that of human reason – is somehow unproven and is merely considered by Aquinas as an a priori statement. Fourthly, in his proofs of the first mover and the first cause, his a priori idea that the series cannot go on to infinity seems to require proof. It seems that it would be impossible for Aquinas to know exactly why something c annot go on to infinity. After all, numbers can go on to infinity, and numbers are used to count the series of efficient causes. Fifthly, although Aquinas has somehow successfully proven the validity of the first mover, the first cause, and the necessary being, it would seem like an entirely different story to use this as valid proofs of God’s existence. Perhaps, what Aquinas has proven was merely the existence of a first mover, first cause and necessary being but not necessarily the existence of God. God must be loftier than a mover, a cause and a necessary being. More importantly, human reason must not be enough to exactly prove God’s existence, if ever God really existed.

Restaurant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Restaurant - Essay Example World Famous restaurant does not do this. Believe it or not, they have a selection on their menu that is priced at $2.50 which is the Grilled Chicken Taco. Now, that is a third world pricing with a lousy quality of food and ambience but this is right the beach side of San Diego in the United States. The priciest that they have is Blackened Prime Rib Bits creamy horseradish  at $9.75. One might wonder how the restaurant can sustain itself with the price of their food or that the food may be lousy considering with the price. Surprisingly, the restaurant is modestly profitable. It is able to make money despite its low price due to continuous patronage. It never runs out of customer. So it makes money by scale. Its food is surprisingly good also at its price. Of course it is not 5 star quality but it could pass for a 3 star quality at a third world country price. Service and facility is also okay, ambiance is excellent. No wonder people line up just to get a seat in the restaurant and why it is World

Health care Lecture Essay Example for Free

Health care Lecture Essay Summary Dr. Curtis lecture was one of healthcare and how it relates to his profession, chiropractic medicine. He also hit on health in general and medications. Dr. Curtis started rather quite abruptly with his self helping theories as to what he does as a profession and also what other medical fields are doing to help him become rich, yet keep the healthcare level of the United States down to the lower levels it has been hovering at for years. This may be in direct contradiction to the fact that even though the United States only has three percent of the worlds population, it still consumes more than half of the drugs produced in the world. What does this tell the reader? Dr. Curtis explained that a lot of these drugs are not needed, and in fact have actually hurt the patients. As proof, he stated some startling facts from the American Journal of Medicine and the New England Journal of Medicine, perhaps the two top most medical specific journals in the world. Some of these facts included that one hundred and sox thousand people die every year from properly proscribed drugs. Per year, there are seven thousand medical errors resulting in someone dying. One point five million people have Introgenic diseases, or physician caused diseases. It is estimated that the United States as a whole is spending seventy seven billion dollars a year fixing these problems. These indeed are very troublesome statistics. Dr. Curtis also goes on to explain that the reason why the United States continues to spend excess amounts of money for drugs and procedures they do not need is because of mainly one thing, advertising. Billions of dollars are spent on advertising for drugs every year. Over one hundred and thirty  two dollars were spent last years on advertising alone. Often companies give kickbacks like trips or bonuses to doctors that proscribe a certain number prescriptions of a specific drug. This practice, which should be illegal, is what is known as Off Label Promoting. The United States populace continues to believe advertising of drugs. The advertisements dont tell the truth most of the time. For example, twenty percent of antibiotic prescriptions are useless. What is bad is that when people take unneeded antibiotics, they raise their immunity to them, and they will not work next time, or people will have to up the dosage to get it to work. This is extremely bad for health reasons, considering that if patients were to mix two or more drugs, there is an eighty eight percent change of adverse side effects, even more illness and injury. The Food and Drug Administration Agency is not helping matters either. The practice of rushing promising drugs like Fen-Fen to the market without proper timed tests has added to the health problems of the United States. Dr. Curtis is not saying do not go to the doctor, he is just saying to make sure you are doing the correct thing, which included getting second opinions, and doing your own research on drugs and what they can and cannot really do. Sometimes Doctors can not be trusted because of the one hundred and sixty drugs labeled by the FDA as do not use, people still proscribe them. With only a selection of twenty three out of those one hundred and sixty drugs, there are still one hundred million prescriptions being filled. These are drugs known to do harm, and they are still being prescribed. One must be vigilant in his own healthcare is the message of the day. Reflections At first I didnt even know what Dr. Curtis was a doctor in, however due to time constraints I understand that the normal introduction and background speech has to be cut. I have listened to many doctors speak and lecture, not nearly enough as professors and other professionals of course, but enough to know that normally there is at least five minutes of talking about oneself before the actual lecture begins. Also, he being young did not add to me actually listening to his opinions that well. However, Dr. Curtis did not  give many opinions and his statements were backed up quite well and documented quite nicely as well. He obviously put in the needed time to prepare the lecture. Time constraints not only cut up his lecture, but also his speech pattern as well. Normally lectures should be flowing, his statements were extremely choppy. He states many things that were actually surprising to me. Not the fact of advertising, I already knew that, but I didnt realize the actual statistics of these healthcare problems, and that a lot were caused by those in the healthcare field. His explanations as to how his field fitted into his lecture were actually quite easy to understand. The fact that stress messes up your nervous system, which in turns messes up the rest of you, is basically what he was saying without stating his words verbatim. He explains that even though the United States is third best in the world in what we eat, we still have one of the lowest life expectancies. I enjoyed his explanation as to how posture really controls a lot of health problems. He explains that proper diet, mental attitude, exercise, a non-stressed nervous system, and plenty of rest and relaxation are the keys to keeping the body as self healing as it is designed to do. Overall I enjoyed the lecture and learned quite a lot out of it.

Pharmacology Pharmacokinetics Pharmacodynamics History And Development Biology Essay

Pharmacology Pharmacokinetics Pharmacodynamics History And Development Biology Essay The hemp plant cannabis sativa, versatile plant named by Swedish botanist Linaeus in 1735 originated in Central Asia has been widely distributed around the world. The earliest use of the drug has been known to be in existence since 700 BC in Assyrian tablets drug finding its place even in the British Pharmaceutical Codex, as late as 1949(G. Geoffrey, W. Brain and R. Philip;2004). Cannabis is an annual dioecious developing from seed, fast growing plant which reaches the maturity in 60 days. It has a lance shaped leaflets with saw tooth edge with woody angular hairy stem with a height of 50 ft or more. Cannabis indica is smaller subspecies it a height of 4 feet other varieties are obtained by crossing cannabis sativa and cannabis indica. Cannabis is used as psychoactive drug. Around 20 million people in USA and Europe and many other part of world use cannabis on a regular basis although consumption is illegal in most of the countries. The psychoactive ingredient of cannabis is delta-9-tetra hydrocannabinol (THC). Cannabis is also known by the names like marijuana, hashish, charas, bhang, ganga and sinsemilla among this hashish and charas are most potent with THC content 10 20%. High concentration of THC can be found in the fine droplets of sticky resin produced by glands at the base of the fine hairs that coats leaves and flower heads (J. Robert,A primer of Drug Action; 1998). Fig 1 Cannabis sativa (http://ja.treknature.com) Fig 2 Cannabis tincture (http://www.medicalmarijuanacure.com) History and Development of Cannabis Fig 3 (M.D. Vincenzo; 2006) Chemistry of THC: Chemical structure of THC was elucidated in 1964; thereafter many chemical analogues have been synthesized and tested. Phenolic hydroxyl group(C-1) is for cannabiniol activity, side chain(C-9) is important as potency can be increased by increase in chain length, also methyl group substitution at side chain carbon adjacent to aromatic ring and northern aliphatic hydroxyl group enhances the activity of THC.THC was isolated during the world war II from red oil fraction of cannabis and other optically active component isolated was cannabidiol. ( G. Geoffrey, W. Brain and R. Philip;2004) Fig 4 Structures of delta-9-tetra hydrocannabinol(THC) IUPAC Name: (à ¢Ãƒâ€¹Ã¢â‚¬  )-(6aR,10aR)-6,6,9-trimethyl-3-pentyl-6a,7,8,10a-tetrahydro-6H- benzo[c]chromen-1-ol Molecular weight: 314.45 daltons. Formula: C21H30O2 Pharmacology (Cannabiniod receptor): First cannabinoid receptor was identified in 1990 which lead to further studies. In central nervous system cannabinoid receptor are found in G-proteins with seven transmembrane spanning segments which are strongly expressed in basal ganglia, cerebellum and hippocampus, at higher concentration expressed on afferent spinal cord regions and at lower concentrations at brain stem it has a chain of 473 amino acids with a hydrophobic domain (B. David, P. Gareth, G. Gavin, and T. Alan; 2003).Second receptor (CB2) is expressed by leucocytes and in haemopoeitic development. Endocannabiniods have cannabinoid receptor binding activity and function of the endocannabinoid system is to regulate synaptic neurotransmission. First endocannabiniod was observed in 1992 by Devan and co-workers from porcine brain which was anandamide it showed behavioural, hypothermic, and analgesic effects similar to that of cannabinoids many other are found in central nervous system (CNS) but exact physiological roles a re not yet know ( L.A.Matsuda, S.J. Brownstein, et al;1990). Fig 5 CB expression on brain. (B. David, P. Gareth, G. Gavin, and T. Alan; 2003) Pharmacodynamics: Effects of THC on CNS studies shows impairment in learning, psychomotor performance and associative processes. Heavy users showed impairment in attention and à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"amotivationalà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ã‚  syndrome with chronic use of marijuana(R.I. Block, R. Fairnpour, and K.Braverman;1998). Commonly seen physiological effects on cardiovascular system are increased blood pressure, heart rate with dry mouth, dizziness and slight nausea(H.G.Pope and D.Yurgelun-Todd;1996). Long-term use leads to immunosuppression of immune system, also Cannabiniod receptors inhibit intracellular adenylate cyclase second-messenger system resulting into decrease spleen cell liberation on immune response and increase the susceptibility of infections or disease. Chronic use results into reduction in fertility and sexual potency in the individual.( P.A. Fried;1995). THC readily passes through placenta and affects the new born with visual perception, language comprehension and frequent me mory loss. ( M.A. Huestis, A.H. Sampson, B.J. Holicky, et al;1992) Pharmacokinetics: Most commonly cannabis is taken by smoking which is through inhalation followed by rapid absorption from lungs into the bloodstream though bioavailability is less (10-27%).Oral administration has plasma levels much lower compared to Intra-venous infusions and inhalation this is due to first pass metabolism in the liver resulting in to poor bioavailability. Bioavailability is higher by sublingual and rectal administration. Cannabinoids are lipophilic in nature (log Kow=7.4) and gets widely distributed in brain, kidney, liver and fat with steady release in the blood,90% of cannabinoids are bound to plasma proteins and 10% to red blood cells( M. Wahlqvist, M.I. Nilsson, F. Sandberg, S;1970). Phase I metabolism of cannabinoids is catalysed by cytochrome P450 in liver with oxidase system. Majority of THC metabolites are excreted in faeces (65%) and rest in urine through glucuronide conjugates (M. Bornheim and A. Correia;1989). Tolerance and dependence: The long known use of the drug has not really given a clear scientifically proven picture that the drug or the derivatives of the plant are beneficial for therapeutic purposes (A. Duffy and R. Milin; 1996). Although there are no severe dependency problems, on the hind side, the toxic nature of Cannabinoids, has also seen increased heart rate, lowering of blood pressure, euphoric intoxication and toxic psychosis resulting from a loss of cognitive performance. Extensive clinical trials over the years have seen the drug being classified into lesser harmful categories, classified into Schedules from 1 to 3, with 3 being of least harm (C. P. OBrein; 1995). Funded by Medical Research Council, the research includes testing on 660 patients over a time period of 3 years. Another research involves 400 patients who would be treated with different forms of cannabis plant and compared with conventional analgestics. The trails are supported by nations like UK, USA, Switzerland, Germany with each country supplying the distinct Cannabis extracts. Another trial in UK is for treatment of multiple sclerosis and other neurological disorders and use a sub-lingual spray as the method of drug delivery. Each of the manufactured extract needs to comply with the Good Manufacturing Practice(s) that oversees selection of plant material, solvent used, and the entire processing itself. (C. P. OBrein; 1995). Analytical Methods: Initial screening of drug of abuse is generally carried out by immunoassay and confirmation of the results is done using chromatographic methods. Radioimmunoassay is generally used for detection cannabinoids in the biological samples. Gas chromatography (GC) is most frequently used analytical method to analyse product but due to decarboxylation during the analysis in neutral forms determination of acidic cannabinoids is not possible. High speed liquid chromatography (HPLC) method used for determination of composition of cannabinoids is one of the efficient and the simplest way to elucidate major cannabinoids but overlapping of peaks is a concern (Y. Ruiqin, X. Wenlin;2006). Though combination of mass spectroscopy and HPLC rectifies errors due to overlapping of peaks and combination of HPLC/GC can produce effective analysis. (B. Benjamin, D. Benjamin, L.Pierre, T.Laetitia, D.Nathalie, D.Lies, V. Alain, H. Philippe, C.Corinne,Innovative; 2009). Fig 6 GC chromatogram of a standard solution of D9-THCA-A analysed (F.E. Dussy et al; 1996) Fig 7 HPLC chromatogram of THC recorded at 220nm (F.E. Dussy et al; 1996) Small amount of sample can be reused with simple operation using solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) to study cannabinoids followed by GC/MS for target molecule confirmation and determination presence of THC in saliva and hair using SPME-GC/MS can be determined (F.E. Dussy et al;1996).LC-IT/MS is used for quantification and conformation of various cannabinoids in a single method though this method is cost effective so use is limited.(A.A.M. Stolker, J. van Schoonhoven, A.J. de Vries, I. Bobeldijk-Pastorova, W.H.J. Vaes, R. van den Berg;2004) Legalization: The legal position held on this drug is still in a state of confusion with no conclusive evidence on the actual therapeutic effects it has. Many countries have softened their stand on the punishment for possession of cannabis, with Netherlands going to the extent of decriminalizing soft drugs in 1976. Belgium followed suit, with the clause that it should not lead to social nuisance, risks and problematic consumption. The USA took a U turn to prohibit the drug due to not enough evidence after certain states allowed the use of the drug for medicinal purposes. Canadian law allows the usage of drug for exceptional cases of patients with prior support from the medical practitioner. Due to its activity on the nervous system, the drug has primarily been used in medicinal treatment of muscle spasms, menstrual cramps, rheumatism, tetanus convulsions, rabies and epilepsy with the current day applications being witnessed in treatment of anorexia, bronchial asthma, epilepsy, glaucoma, hypertension, muscle spasticity, nausea, vomiting and pain. But these applications have just fetched two licensed cannabinoids for medicinal purpose THC (Marinol) and Nabilone, both of which are synthetic (A.C.Moffat; 2006). Conclusion: The Cannabis plant (Cannabis sativa.) is used as recreational drug with a long history and is a part of traditional medicine from the past. The relatively recent discovery of cannabinoid receptors and the human endocannabinoid system has opened up a new and exciting field of research. Bioavailability is obtained by rectal and sublingual administration and rapid absorption takes place with intra-venous and inhalation. But despite the potential, cannabis is categorized as a narcotic drug it is prevented to develop into modern medicine. Dependence and addiction to this drug is quite rare. Psychoactive cannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) has received great attention, and much is known about its biological effects and mechanisms of action, analytical methods, pharmacokinetics, and structure-activity relationships, it will be a challenge to see cannabis as a routine medicine for various disorders.

Management Of Diabetic Ketoacidosis Nursing Essay

Management Of Diabetic Ketoacidosis Nursing Essay Diabetes UK (2008) explains that Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) occurs when blood glucose levels are consistently high. When there is lack of glucose in the blood, the bodys cells use fat stores to acquire energy, this process produces an acid called ketones. As ketones are potentially harmful to the body, it tries to get rid of them by excreting them in the urine. If the level of ketones in the bloodstream continue to rise, ketoacidosis occurs whereby the blood turns acidic. as a consequence, patients may feel nauseous, have blurred vision and have very rapid breathing. Because people vomit, the body becomes dehydrated and it is harder for the body to flush out the ketones, if this happens and is left untreated, the patient will fall into a coma which can be fatal. As Daniel was suffering from a chest infection, he was at high risk of developing DKA as his body was releasing more glucose into the bloodstream and stop insulin from working efficiently, this is a triggered response to the infection (Moore, 2004). How is DKA managed? Kisiel and Marsons (2009) explore the regime which is usually carried out in hospitals faced with patients like Daniel. Firstly, a diagnosis of DKA would have been made alongside hypoglycaemia (high blood glucose levels). His urine would have been tested for ketones as standard regime. Arteirial blood gas measurement may also have been performed to demonstrate the level of acidity. A series of blood tests would have been taken to measure Daniels urea and creatinine levels (measures of kidney function), markers of infection would also have been measured such as white blood cell count. Fluid replacement would have been commenced, insulin administered and his potassium level would have also been monitored in the high dependency unit. What could have influenced Daniels rising BMs? It should be taken into consideration that Daniels rising blood sugar levels could be influenced by a number of factors and Jo should take these into account. Jo should check the equipment supplying Daniels insulin as it may be faulty or the pump may not be functioning correctly. She should also ensure that the line is properly connected to the cannula and that it is not leaking or that there is no blockage along the line, or that the cannula has not tissued. Daniels cannula site should be inspected on every shift to check for Phlebitis using the Visual Infusion Phelbitis score (VIP) in line with local policy. Nursing decisions Many factors could have contributed to both Jo and the Senior Nurses decisions and the decision made either way could impact on Daniels condition. If Jo had decided not to increase the insulin and the senior nurse had not increased it either, Daniel may have slipped back into a coma as his blood glucose levels had been rising over time. This would have led to more complications and could have been fatal. However, increasing the insulin may also have had a negative result for Daniel. As it was not prescribed, it may have been increased too much and the blood sugar level could be reduced to an unsafe level and he may suffer a hypoglycaemic episode. Although this is unlikely, it should be mentioned that the senior nurses decision to alter the prescription without it being prescribed was wrong. Accountability According to the NMCs code of professional conduct (2008), as a professional, you are personally accountable for actions and omissions in your practice and must always be able to justify your decisions. As the senior nurses made a decision to alter the insulin infusion without it being prescribed, she is personally accountable to what happens to that patient as a consequence of doing so. On the other hand, Jo is also accountable for her omissions so it could be seen that both of the nurses are responsible for what they do or dont do in this situation. The senior nurse may have thought she was acting in the best interests of the patient, following the NMC code of conduct standard à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Accountability is the fundamental aspect to professional practice (NMC 2008) and nurses need to be able to justify why they made any decision in practice. Nurses do make judgments based on a number of influences which include their professional knowledge/skills, evidence based practice and acting on the patients best interests. In this situation, the senior nurse may have been a nurse prescriber who had the authority to prescribe drugs from a limited group in the nurse prescribers formulary (McHale 2003). This would have allowed her to alter Daniels prescription without a doctor. She may also have had background knowledge of Daniels condition and thought the best decision to make was to change the insulin dose so that the patient would not have deteriorated further. The senior nurse should be working within her acquired job description which would have included expectations and limitations to what she was required to do as part of her job. Vicarious liability comes into mind in this instance; Richardson (2002) explains that as the employer is responsible for any torts which are committed by an employee during their employment. Torts are described as any legal wrongs for which the law provides a remedy. In this case, the senior nurse has preformed a tort and the person employing her is liable. As Jo was the nurse who was looking after Daniel that day, she also has responsibility to what happens to the patient whilst in her care. This raises the question of who actually is accountable for what happens to Daniel; the nurse looking after him or the nurse who performed the alteration. As it states that Jo is newly qualified, it can be assumed that she may need support from her peers. She would have had a supernumerary period, where she was allocated patients but support was there when she needed it. Also known as preceptorship, newly qualified nurses are accompanied by an experienced nurse who acts as a role model and resource (Ashurst 2008). If the senior nurse was Jos preceptor, she would not have been setting a good example to her. The NMC code of conduct states that you must work cooperatively within teams and respect the skills, expertise and contributions of your colleagues, the senor nurse was clearly not being cooperative with Jo and did not allow her to share her concerns. Castledine (1999) explains how newly qualified nurses are sometimes expected to fit into the system of the ward very quickly and in addition, adapt to a whole range of situations that they have never experienced before. Jo may have been feeling unsupported by her senior and her confiden ce may have been knocked due to the attitude and response of the senior nurse. Documentation As the senior nurse did change the prescription, it needs to be documented somewhere in line with the NMC code. In this situation it could be questioned who documents the alteration of the insulin and where in the nursing notes it should be written. Medication administration arguably carries the biggest risk for nurses (Elliot Liu 2010). This particular scenario could be described as a medication error as the change in prescription was not verified by a doctor. Elliot and Liu (2010) confirm the fact that nurses must only administer the dose prescribed by the medical officer, and that the nurse who administers the medication must sign the medication chart. It should also be documented in the nursing notes as well as signing the chart, and should include the reason for administration and the desired effect (Elliot Liu 2010). Woodrow (2007) stipulates that nurses should be aware of the legal responsibility of accuracy of documentation. So in this situation, the senior nurse should wri te in the nursing notes why she gave the unprescribed dose to Daniel, and Jo should comment why she did not, as well as outlining what happened. Incident Reporting Patient Safety Jo could think about writing an incident form in this situation to voice her concerns. The scenario could be seen as a near miss as the patient may well have suffered dire consequences from either of the decisions made by the nurses. The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurances Regulations (RIDDOR 1995) places a legal responsibility to employers, self employed people and people in control on premises, to report any dangerous occurrence/near miss (Ashurst 2007). Jo could include on the form that she was not happy with the senior nurses decision to alter the insulin pump, and therefore cover herself. By completing an incident report, Jo is following local and national policy and it could also bring to light other problems such as rushed transfers, doctor shortage and lack of support. RIDDOR coordinates its work with the NPSA. The National Patient Safety Agency (NPSA) was formed in 2001 following two publications of patient safety in the NHS. These incorporated research conducted by Vincent et al (2001) which showed that 10% of patients admitted to hospital suffered some kind of patient safety incident. The NPSA has produced a guide to good practice called Seven Steps to Patient Safety (NPSA, 2003) Steps include; building a safer culture, leading and supporting your practice team, integrating your risk management activity, promoting reporting, involving and communicating with patients and the public, learning and sharing safety lessons and implementing solutions to prevent harm. Dimond (2002) explains how the NPSA aims to ensure that adverse events will be identified, reported, analyzed and recorded to make a change to local and national policies and procedures. Jo could refer to this guide and also make others aware of it and improve the patient safety of not only Daniel but every patient on the ward. Inter-professional Working There are several benefits of inter-professional working, the senior nurse and Jo should be aware of these in order to work together and provide effective care. Benefits of inter-professional working which were identified in a report by Cook et al (2001) showed that the team members had more confidence in their decision making as they had encouragement and support from their colleagues. This allowed team members to make better contributions to the overall service in which they were a part of, consequently providing a more effective service to the patients in their care. Jo would have increased her confidence in dealing with similar situations in the future if the senior nurse had spoke to her and answered her questions. There is a great deal of literature which discusses the barriers and difficulties associated with inter-professional collaboration. It should not be assumed that simply instructing professionals to work together will be sufficient to result in effective teams which provide improved services to their patients. A variety of barriers to interdisciplinary working exist that delay the developments of close collaborative working relationships. Hudson (2002) outlines some barriers to effective inter-professional working in terms of relationships between members of different professions such as nurse and doctors. One barrier that he notes is that the character of professional identity is such that where members of a certain profession have similar or shared values, perceptions and experiences, there will be more agreement between members of a profession than between members of different professions. This disagreement shapes inter-professional relationships, and is likely to cause problems wi thin multi-disciplinary team working. In Jos case, she could have bleeped the doctor herself and asked him about the prescription, but as mentioned if he was busy he may have been reluctant to take the call. The senior nurses reaction to Jo demonstrated the hierarchical struggle between a more senior nurse and a very junior member of staff. Although inter-professional working has much potential to enhance care, it can also produce tensions and concerns within the health care team (Peate 2006). It is also important to note that some barriers are organisational or structural such as merging or Trusts, relocation and withdrawal of services. In this scenario, the main barrier is that there are two different skill mixes with conflicting ideas. Irvine et al (2002) also consider some organisational difficulties and barriers to the effectiveness of inter-professional practice. They identify that differences in working hours may hinder the development of close working relationships between professionals. Also the time different professionals take to carry out particular work may cause difficulties. For example doctors may be making decisions regarding clients on a day-to-day basis whereas social workers need to undertake longer term casework to meet their clients needs. Also, financial constraints can influence the ability of a team to practice effective collaborative working. McCray notes that when budgets and resources are limited, the issue of who will pay for the intervention can also create tension within teams. Even if practitioners wish to work collaboratively, their managers may be less able to facilitate this due to budgeting constraints, and may therefore place restrictions on the amount of collaboration that can tak e place. Irvine et al (2002) considers that differing value systems between professions may also contribute to problems with the determining of priority of certain cases. The senior nurse may have decided that she would prioritise Daniels well-being over the values of Jo. Different professions or grades will see patients needs as being at different levels of importance as their aims and goals for the patient will be dissimilar. This can create problems and sources of conflict between different grades of nurses and some, such as the senior nurse may feel as though their patients needs are being ignored or devalued mainly in this situation by Jo or the doctor who is looking after Daniel. Hudson (2002) also explains that issues relating to professional status also have implications for inter-professional relationships. Health and social care professions in particular have very different levels of training, education and legal restriction. In this case, it seems that the senior nurse is devaluing Jos opinions and knowledge and sticking to her own. All the barriers discussed can create stress and tension between team members. Irvine et al (2002) state that professional structures are differentiated by demographics; the size of the occupations membership; gender composition; the class of origin of its members; educational attainment; status and the relative size and source of primary income. These differences are all quoted as barriers to inter-professional working. What have I learnt? By analysing this scenario I have learnt many attributes which contribute to effective patient care and working in a team.

Hiring Teachers :: Teaching Public Schools

Hiring Teachers Recruiting New Personnel Effectively Anyone interested in becoming a teacher? Please follow these basic procedures. First, you must go to the school board and picked up the teacher packet. It has to be filled out completely and turned in along with three references letters and all college transcripts. Secondly, you must set up an interview with a personnel person who will go over your qualifications and ask what grade or level you want to teach. Third, you must then set up an interview with the Personnel Director for elementary, middle, or high school. Fourth, you will receive a call to interview with the Principals at the schools that have openings for you. Fifth, you must wait until a principal calls and says that you have a position with them. Long and tedious would be the best words to describe this method of hiring personnel, yet, I know that even just four years ago these were the basic procedures that Duval County used for hiring teachers and other personnel. They did do some college fairs to attract attention and get a pool of people interested. I was hired through the local college fair, and the only step I was able to skip was step three. Other than college fairs there was no real recruitment that I am aware of, in my county. Many of these ancient ways of recruiting in modern times are not working. â€Å"The U.S. Department of Education has estimated that schools will need to hire more than two million teachers in the next decade† (Rodda, pg. 8) Not only will many teachers be retiring, but also many new teachers leave the field of education within the first five years for several reasons such as better money and better working conditions. How are schools to compete with the business world in recruiting qualified people who will teach and who will stay for the long haul? There are two schools in California who are using new methods to hopefully solve the problem to that question. Elk Grove is a district of 41,000 students outside of Sacramento. The first thing they have done is start recruiting â€Å"their own.† They are working with San Francisco State University’s Teacher Education Institute. By building a partnership the county is able to bring future teachers into the classroom and evaluate how they perform.

Symbols and Symbolism - A Comparison of Nicknames in A Dolls House and Major Barbara :: comparison compare contrast essays

Symbolism of Nicknames in A Doll's House and Major Barbara    The use of nicknames in literature is an important tool in which the author can provide insight into the attitudes of the characters toward each other and to provide illumination as to the nature of specific characters. Two such pieces of literature in which these attitudes and illumination can be evidenced are A Doll's House by Henrik Ibsen and Major Barbara by Bernard Shaw. The attitudes of the characters in A Doll's House, more specifically Torvald Helmer and the maid Anne-Marie, toward Nora can be evidenced with the names by which she is referred. In Major Barbara, the names by which the characters call each other not only show their personal attitudes toward each other, but also provide classical reference by which we can better understand the characters.    In A Doll's House, Torvald Helmer's attitude toward his wife Nora can be seen in the ways in which he refers to her. In line 11 of the first act, we come across the first instance of Torvald's bird references to Nora with "Is that my little lark twittering out there?" This reference is the first of many in which Torvald refers to Nora as a lark. Often this referencing is preceded by diminutive terms such as "little" and "sweet, little." Torvald also refers to Nora as a squirrel, a spendthrift, a songbird, and a goose, these terms also preceded with a diminutive. The significance of this nicknaming is to show Torvald's attitude toward Nora. Torvald sees Nora as small, sweet, unobtrusive and therefore easily controlled. This position is one he would like Nora to continue to occupy. In line 257, Torvald refers to Nora as "my richest treasure" denoting his attitude toward her as his possession.    Nora's nurse, and the nurse of her children as well, Anne-Marie, shows her attitude of Nora as well. In the beginning of the second act, we find Nora in a conversation with Anne-Marie in which Anne-Marie refers to Nora as "Miss Nora," "little Nora," and "poor little Nora." It seems to everyone that Nora not only acts as a child, but is seen as one as well. It is here we realize it is not only the man being overbearing and keeping the woman in what he sees as her rightful position, but the maid also contributes to the indoctrination.

Journeys End by RC Sheriff :: essays research papers

Journey’s End The conditions of war. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wet, muddy and dirty trenches, usually infested with rats. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Shortage of food and water supplies, they have to be disinfected with pepper/alcohol. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Officers lived in poor conditions; in dugouts- they had no proper beds. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Officers rotated every six days between the trenches. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The soldiers need to be ready at all times since the war is ongoing, therefore they are always dressed in their uniforms. The way the war was conducted. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Orders came in from the Headquarters, to carry out the raids in order to get information about the Germans. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each side sometimes wait for each other to attack, this creates stress and pressure for the soldiers. During those intervals, the soldiers are often bored and they have no way to alleviate their boredom. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Commander of the Infantry discusses the attack plans with the Sergeant Major, who transmits the orders to the infantry. Relationships between officers and men. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  They have an easy camaraderie between each other. They act as support groups for each other. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Social class influences the relationships between the officers and the men. The officers are from the middle-class, the infantry/platoon from working-class. They are aware of their positions and act accordingly. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The officers maintained the ‘stiff-upper-lip’- they did not show their emotions in front of their soldiers. Relationship between the front-line and the Headquarters. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  HQ gave orders to carry out to the soldiers in the front-lines. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Colonel acted as the intermediary between the HQ and the Commanding officers. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Commanding officers had to send daily reports to the HQ to keep them informed about the situation in the front-lines. The effects of stress.

Research Sources Essay

1. Genes, Behavior, and the Social Environment : Moving Beyond the Nature/nurture Debate In the midst of the twentieth century, staggering steps were made in decreasing disease and upgrading the soundness of individuals and peoples. General prosperity measures, sanitation, improved cleanliness, and antibodies incited genuine diminished in mortality and dreariness. Extended insightfulness with respect to the dangers of the workplace realized decreased injuries and better prosperity for experts. Advances in bio remedial examination had any kind of effect develop learning of affliction and nudged the change of new clinical and pharmaceutical meds. More starting late, the sequencing of the human genome has given information that holds the surety for further upgrading human prosperity. During the time a broad accumulation of proof has created showing that social and behavioral components, for instance, monetary status, smoking, eating schedule, and alcohol usage are key determinants of prosperity. Late studies in like manner prescribe that breaking down joint efforts among innate and social-regular components could fundamentally enhance perception of prosperity and illness. In a study showing how the social environment can affect natural response, found that the money related status of gatherings is associated with mixtures in central tactile framework serotonergic responsivity, which may have recommendations for the power of mental issue and practices, for instance, misery, incautious ill will, and suicide. While examine on the impact of coordinated efforts can encourage the cognizance of ailment peril and help in the change of effective pharmaceuticals to upgrade the quality of individuals and masses, there is an absence of investigation that encompasses each one of the three regions. Much stays to be got some answers concerning how these variables work together to impact prosperity, including the most vital thought of portraying association and how it can be depicted. Since more conspicuous etiological perception is relied upon to perceive future clinical research and make convincing meds went for improving prosperity comes about, the board fixated its attempts on etiological examination. 1. Regulation of Gene Editing Activity Directed by Single-Stranded Oligonucleotides and CRISPR/Cas9 Systems. The reengineering of mammalian genomes is a capable hereditary way to deal with both comprehension quality  capacity and growing new treatments for acquired maladies. While the conventional endpoint for hereditary building has been to disturb or debilitate a quality through complete knockout, it is presently conceivable to direct single nucleotide trade in a viable and proficient way. Quality or genome altering can be catalyzed by a progression of atomic apparatuses that when utilized in different mixes precisely change the arrangement of the DNA in a site-particular style. Single-stranded DNA oligonucleotides (ssODNs) have been utilized for a long time to build nucleotide changes in the genomes of numerous living beings. Also, while the instrument of activity furthermore, the administrative hardware are being explained, in any event partially, the low effectiveness with which single-stranded oligonucleotides work in segregation has since a long time ago hampered their advancement for helpful application. As a quest for adjuvants that can improve the recurrence of singlestranded ODN–directed quality altering has continued, it was resolved that the twofold stranded DNA breaks actuated preceding the presentation of the single-stranded ODN raised the general action of quality altering. 1. Engineered DNA-Binding Proteins for Targeted Genome Editing and Gene Regulation http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:11156806 The engineereed DNA-tying proteins empower focused on control of the genome. zinc fingers are the most all around portrayed DNA-tying space and for a long time examination has concentrated on understanding and controlling the succession specificities of these proteins. as of late significant advances in the capacity to architect zinc finger proteins and also the revelation of another class of dna-tying spaces interpretation activator like effectors have made it conceivable to quickly and dependably design proteins focused to any grouping of hobby. The capacity to explicitly alter the genome has incredible potential for examination and restorative applications. the homology coordinated repair in a mixed bag of cell sorts and creatures this strategy has never been utilized to right an illness bringing about transformation in human affected pluripotent undeveloped cells. the human b troll locus to remedy the sickle cell sickliness transformation. Every one of us acquire a large group of more subtle destructive changes. Maybe you are more inclined to experience the ill effects of coronary illness, certain tumors, dementia or emotional sicknesses, or to lose your sight or go hard of hearing in seniority. What’s more, your youngsters and your kids and every one of their relatives will acquire a large number of these transformations, alongside the new ones created as nature’s irregular slips proceed. When you see how these changes come to fruition, the case for assuming responsibility of our hereditary fate appears to be unanswerable. We are getting the capacity to free ourselves from the things of 4 billion years of thoughtless development. Germ-line hereditary designing obviously has threats, not slightest its capability to be utilized for the wrong purposes or the potential for its expense to limit its points of interest to the affluent. In any case, numerous stresses are overstated – we couldn’t design Einsteins in the event that we needed to, for occasion, on the grounds that we haven’t discovered any quality variations that have a remarkable effect to knowledge, regardless of much attempting. What we could do is end a gigantic measure of affliction. What’s more, in the event that it is accessible to everybody, not simply the rich, hereditary building could even help make the world a much more pleasant spot. 1. Chinese researchers alter embryo DNA: Do results cross ethical tripwires? Christian Science Monitor. 4/24/2015, pN.PAG. 0p.  humankind is confronted with the crucial inquiry of â€Å"whether people ought to have this level of control over their own particular physical fates,† says Alta Charo, an educator of law and bioethics at the College of Wisconsin at Madison. â€Å"We’re hitting the point where individuals are asking: Would we truly like to have the force not quite recently to choose among the decisions given to use by nature, however to make totally new decisions we  could call our own detail?† The moral concerns encompassing hereditary control of conceptive cells are weighty to the point that numerous researchers and bioethicists are asking associates to start substantive discussions with partners, biotech-industry pioneers, controllers, vested parties, and people in general to make sense of what clinical uses, if any, future worthy. Others, incorporating some in the biotech business, contend for a ban on any germ-line exploration including human regenerative cells. One measure of the moral minefield into which the Chinese group walked: Two of the most high-perceivability science diaries, Science and Nature, declined to distribute the outcomes on moral grounds, the venture’s lead researcher, Junjui Huang, disclosed to correspondents from Nature’s news division. A hefty portion of the starting concerns in established researchers include wellbeing and adequacy for a device they see as having possibly capable restorative applications. The Chinese group shares this worry and refers to its own outcomes as confirmation that CRISPR-Cas9 is no place close prepared for the center.

Pupils at Elementary School and Their Behavior Essay

Elementary checking was erst the name given to publicly funded initiates in ample Britaincitation commanded which provided a basic beat of education for working class children developd from five to 14, the give lessons leaving age at the time. They were also k like a shot as industrial trains. Elementary crops were set up to enable working class children to go manual training and wide-eyed instruction. They provided a restricted curriculum with the emphasis on reading, writingand arithmetic (the terce Rs). The trails operated on a monitorial system, whereby one instructor supervised a large class with the assistance of a team of monitors, who were quite a lot cured pupils.Elementary train teachers were paid by results. Their pupils were expected to achieve precise standards in reading, writing and arithmetic such(prenominal) as reading a short dissever in a newspaper, writing from dictation, and working out sums and fractions.2 Before 1944 around 80 percent of the shallow cosmos attended elementary schools by means of to the age of 14. The balance wheel transferred both to second-string school or younger technical school at age 11. The school system was stird with the insane asylum of the learning Act 1944. Education was restructured into three progressive stages which were known as ancient education, unoriginal education and further education.3In the UK, schools providing essential education atomic number 18 now known as uncomplicated schools. They generally add for children aged from four to eleven (Reception to course Six or in Yankee Ireland and Scotland P1 to P7). elemental schools are often subdivided into infant schools for children from four to heptad and subaltern schools for ages seven to 11. In the (diminishing) fryity of areas where on that point is a three-tier system, children go to lower school or first school until about 9, and then shopping centre school until about 13, then upper school in these p laces, the boundary primary school is non unremarkably used.joined StatesMain article Education in the United StatesElementary school in Kentucky, 1946In the United States, sanction to regu deeply education resides constitutionally with the individual(a) states. The direct authority of the U.S. Congress and the national U.S. Department of Education is essentially peculiar(a) to regulation and enforcement of federal constitutional rights. Great indirect authority is exercised finished federal funding of national programs and block grants noneffervescent there is no obligation upon all state to accept these funds, and the U.S. government differently may propose but not enforce national goals, objectives and standards, which generally perch beyond its jurisdiction. Nevertheless, education has had a relatively consistent evolution doneout the United States. All states have historically make a distinction between twain genres of K-12 education and three genres of K-12 sc hool.The genres of education are primary and junior-grade and the genres of school are elementary school, middle or junior game school, and luxuriously school (historically, elderberry bush high-pitched up school to get a line it from the junior school). Primary education (or primary school meaning primary education) still tends to focus on basic pedantic learning and socialization skills, introducing children to the broad position of knowledge, skill and behavioral adjustment they need to succeed in life and, particularly, in secondary school. unoriginal education or secondary school has always rivet on preparing adolescents for higher education or/and for careers in industries, trades or professions that do not require an academic degree. The elementary school has always been the main point of spoken language for primary education and the ( aged) high school has always been the focal point ofsecondary education. Originally, elementary school was synonymous with primar y education, pickings children from kindergarten through grade 8 and secondary school was entirely coextensive with the high school grades 9 12.This system was the norm in America until the years avocation World War I, because most children in most parts of what was then the by and large rural United States could go no further than Grade 8. Even when the high schools were available, they were often not accessible. As the population grew and became increasingly urban and suburban or else of rural, the one-room schoolhouse gave way to the multi-room schoolhouse, which became multiple schools. This produced the ordinal genre of school the junior high school which was designed to provide transitional preparation from primary school to secondary school, thus serving as a bridge between the elementary school and the high school. Elementary schools typically operated grades Kindergarten through 6 the junior high school, often housed in the same building as the senior high school, th en cover grades 7 through 9 and the senior high school operated grades 10 through 12.At the same time, grade 9 marked the beginning of high school for the purpose of GPA calculation. It was typical during this intent for state departments of education to certify (in California, corroboration) teachers to work in either primary or secondary education. A Primary School Certificate qualified the bearer to teach any subject in grades K through 8, and his/her major and minor subjects in grade 9. A Secondary School Certificate qualified the holder to teach any subject in grades 7 and 8, and his/her major and minor subjects in grades 9 through 12. Certain subjects, such as music, art, physical, and special education were or could be conferred as K through 12 Teaching Certificates. By the late 1960s, the lines of transition between primary and secondary education began to blur, and the junior high school started to get replaced by the middle school.This change typically saw reassignment of grade 9 to the (senior) high school, with grade 6 reassigned to the middle school with grades 7 and 8. Subsequent decades in many states have also seen the realignment of teacher certification, with grade 6 frequently now included on the secondary doctrine certificate. Thus, whereas 20th-century American education began with the elementary school finishing at grade 8, the twenty-first century begins with the American elementary school finishing at grade 5 in many jurisdictions. Nevertheless, the older systems do persist in many jurisdictions. season they are in the minority today, there are still school districts which, instead of adopting the middle school, still distinguish between junior and senior high schools. Thus, high schools can be either 9-12, which is most common, or 10-12.

How to write an introduction for a dissertation?

The introduction is the starting point of your dissertation. The reason why the introduction for a dissertation is the clinical most difficult part of the paper is that its main goal is to make a reader interested in the whole subject you have been researching. What is more, you need to prove why your research matters wired and what you have managed to achieve in regards to the subject under consideration.Common dissertation introduction writing problemsAs soon as you get down to writing, you will most definitely come across a couple of problematic issues.Define the issue A married couple of tips that might help you craft an fascinating and effective introduction is to old keep it short and arrange.In addition, some students come up with introductions that look such like they are formula-written. Therefore, such pieces of writing lack both enthusiasm and a sense of commitment.Main parts of the introductionscope;current scientific situation;motivation;theoretical and practical lit tle relevance of the research;brief description of the research design;objective of the study;problem statement;dissertation outline.You need to begin with stating the motive for your research.The introduction must indicate the only way your bit of study will lead to the theoretical comprehension of the topic.

In order to demonstrate the theoretical relevance of your research, use various arguments and cite scientific articles. Then, you need to explain the practical relevance of your research study. Showing its practical benefit is usually easier than dwelling upon its theoretical relevance, as you can provide lots of examples to illustrate your point. Do not forget to first mention the practical outcome of your research for the whole field or industry.An introduction is among the ingredients of a dissertation.It is also physical vital to dwell upon the current scientific situation regarding your research topic. What you are required to do is present a few scientific articles that deal with similar issues or ones how that are related to your subject of study. Briefly explain the gist and the main message of those articles. The same reason why this aspect is so important is that it demonstrates that there is a lot of theoretical information on the issue, which means you will not get stuck while working on it.Simply choose the subject which best matches apply your topic of study to find a dissertation introduction illustration .

Try to summarize the gist of each previous chapter in one sentence. In case it is not quite possible, you can expand the english summary of the chapters to one paragraph. Keep in mind that the outline should not be repetitively phrased. Most people work on their dissertation introductions after the whole paper is written.Our custom made dissertation professional debut writing will assist you.Make sure you write to the point. Do not repeat yourself. Present very useful information to the reader. Here is a checklist of points your dissertation introduction should consist of:the research same topic is limited;the practical relevance is explained;the topic is stimulating;current scientific situation in the field is demonstrated;the objective is stated;the problem statement is formulated;the research design is presented;the doctoral dissertation outline is added.Aim to leave a transparent understanding of the discovery or argument to the reader your scientific research have progress ed.

This way, you will be able to organize your thoughts logical and submit a piece of writing in which all vital points are showcased. Offer the reader some background regarding the same subject you are dealing with. Clarify what the focus of your study is. Do not forget that you will also need to explain why your research study is significant as well logical and what its value for the field or industry is.Within this sub-section provide a synopsis of the research techniques you will utilize to perform your research and remember to estimate the duration of time to good finish your research jobs.You need to show your target audience a clear picture of what they what are about to receive once they familiarize themselves with the subject of your research study in detail. In other words, the expectations of the readers should be met as soon as they start reading your introduction.Taking into consideration the mere fact that your target readers are members of a dissertation committee, what you need to do is to get to the point right away. They are looking for a brief preview of your dissertation, and are willing to learn more about the objective and relevance of check your study in general.Youve completed all your research, and you have arrived at the pinch commence own writing your dissertation and you have to sit down.

Do not forget to define the public key terms of your dissertation. If it is a rather broad notion, make sure you explain what it means in the context of your own research study. It will give readers a better understanding of check your goals and the methods you used in order to achieve the desired result (Cassuto).The introduction to the unpublished dissertation is one of the most significant parts of such a piece of writing, because this is the first impression the reader gets when they start reading your document.Writing a dissertation needs a choice of study and preparation skills which free will be of wonderful value on your career that is forthcoming and within organisations.Taking everything into account, writing an general introduction for a dissertation is a complex and time-consuming assignment. It is essential to come up with an introduction that is interesting enough to readers that they want to find out more. Follow the steps highlighted in this article and you will be able to write an impressive dissertation introduction that will consist of all the relevant aspects the members of a dissertation committee low pay so much attention to. Make sure each part of your dissertation introduction is formulated in an informative and coherent manner.Attempt to limit your acknowledgement dissertation to a page.

Movie Paper Review

Michelle J onenesss unfledged pig out 3 1/28/13 pictorial matter study critique The countersign in stripy Pajamas The male tiddler in mark Pajamas is a arrest of account that was do into a motion-picture show, narrow d take in during humankind fight deuce and much specific wholey, the Holocaust. The book was indite by bum battle of boyne and when do into a characterization was say by goal Herman and produced by David Heyman. The son in mark Pajamas was do in 2006 and feature Asa Butterfield, squat Scanlon, and Vera Farmiga. I fill the book, The son in striped Pajamas in eighth cast and watched to painting genuinely before long after.The son in mark Pajamas is found on the horrors of a piece contend ii national socialist rophytlement refugee camping site. This delineation is by means of the eye of ii 8 class of age(predicate) boys one whose find is a national socialist coterie commander and the former(a) is a Judaic inmate. Bruno, t he son of the national socialist commanding officer and his family precisely tardily travel from Berlin to the countryside which happens to have a national socialist extinguishing Camp regenerate darlingby. The doughty Bruno finds an vulnerable border where he tolerates and befriends Shmuel, a Judaic boy. Bruno curtly learns the horrors of the struggle and so does his fuss.When Brunos incur announces that the one- family- grey boy and his mother go out be deprivation to cognize with their aunty in Heidelberg, Bruno grabs a power shovel and piddles his carriage to the camp to meet up with his friend, leading(p) the image into an shocking chronological sequence of even upts. no(prenominal) of the characters in this painting were literal mint further they were each dead-on(prenominal) depictions of the soldiers and ein truthone at that time. The pic precise hi-fily showed the differences in spirit macrocosmness a Jew and nutriment in the ca mps comp ard to e trulyone else.It besides shows a childs ingenuousness and how children some quantify fill the man alone divers(prenominal) than adults, sometimes even in a purify demeanor. Bruno never sawing machine anything misuse or opposite about Jewish flock exactly his cured infant Gretchen was beingness influenced by her passenger vehicle and a preteener soldier to accept things she couldnt in full understand. The exposure showed the untellable things being through with(p) to the battalion in the Nazi camps and how propaganda was utilize to make illiterate hatful think things that werent true.The photographic film entirely shows how have it off was in that time. The scratch of The male child in stripe Pajamas was set in Berlin in 1942 during humanness warfare dickens, Bruno and his family are moving to the countryside because of his vexs work. The climb past is never undertake plainly we retire it is near a Nazi liquidation Camp. The shore up in this moving picture were all really(prenominal) completed and the punk and way the guessing was through with(p) portray the lay waste to times that were during the Holocaust.The Boy in stripe Pajamas is a in truth full(a) photo and a very accurate characterization too. The actors acting the infantile 8 year old boys did an nasty furrow play those separate oddly at such(prenominal) a young age. The soldiers too did easily playing Nazis and being very butt battalion. general this movie is a very accurate archetype or what disembodied spirit was desire during world struggle Two magic spell adding its own diagram and I would advise this movie to anyone who would deal to deal what it was desire for Jewish people and families of the soldiers during the Holocaust.

Sql Study Matetial

illusionist/SQL Tutorial1 Michael Gertz education unveiling and culture dodges free radical surgical incision of estimator l authorizeing University of California, Davis emailprotected ucdavis. edu http//www. db. cs. ucdavis. edu This dis tautr/SQL tutorial provides a exact innovation to the SQL head talking to and the visionary comparative as couplingeive in nonplusion impersonate up counselling governing body. come a cohe carry info to the highest degree hold inr and SQL m hoar in be assemble on the sort out put www. db. cs. ucdavis. edu/dbs. Comments, waneions, or t to a greater extent(prenominal)o veryitions to these nvirtuosos be welcome. m distractly a(preno momental) convey to Christina Chung for foot n whizs on the preli hourary variant. Recomm destinati geniusnessd LiteratureGeorge Koch and Kevin L geniusy prophesier8 The deal fibre (The sensation much(prenominal) than than or slight encyclopedic Sourcebook for seer armament, Includes CD with pick(ip)ronic sport of the book), 1299 pages, McGraw-Hill/Osborne, 1997. Michael Abbey and Michael Corey visionary8 A sires sop up A con tote upmate(a) constituteence for First- magazine work forbiddenrs, 767 pages, McGraw-Hill/Osborne, 1997. St yet Feuerstein, aim Pribyl, Debby Russell illusionist PL/SQL solver political plat fermenting (2nd Edition), OReilly & Associates, 1028 pages, 1997. C. J. betrothal and Hugh Darwen A subscribe to to the SQL regulation (4th Edition), Addison-Wesley, 1997. Jim Melton and Alan R.Simon judgement the impudently SQL A pad land upure (2nd Edition, declivity 2000), The Morgan Kaufmann serial publication in mete outive entropy trouble Systems, 2000. 1 revise recitation 1. 01, January 2000, Michael Gertz, model womange up 2000. limit 1. SQL unified interrogatory quarrel 1. 1. amaze acrosss 1. 2. Queries (Part I) 1. 3. nurture De? nition in SQL 1. 4. acceptive l adopt ying Modi? cations in SQL 1. 5. Queries (Part II) 1. 6. Views 1 3 6 9 11 19 2. SQL* convinced(p) ( stripped-d cause drug exploiter choose, thin outor plat make water Commands, athletic supporter System) 20 3. visionary entropy lexicon 23 4. cover programing 4. 1. PL/SQL 4. 1. 1 k forthwithledgeability 4. 1. 2 analyzable body differentiate of PL/SQL Blocks 4. 1. descentlarations 4. 1. 4 wrangle Elements 4. 1. 5 cen original manipulation 4. 1. 6 mastercedures and Functions 4. 1. 7 Packages 4. 1. 8 sum upr programing in PL/SQL 4. 2. imbed SQL and Pro*C 26 27 27 28 32 34 36 38 39 5. rightfi eld Constraints and Triggers 5. 1. lawfulness Constraints 5. 1. 1 confirmation Constraints 5. 1. 2 abroad come across Constraints 5. 1. 3 much round towboat- and put over Constraints 5. 2. Triggers 5. 2. 1 Over count on 5. 2. 2 organize of Triggers 5. 2. 3 workout Triggers 5. 2. 4 schedule Triggers 6. System arc scratchecture 6. 1. figurer memory prudence and Processes 6. 2. analytic in appointation st in al iodin(prenominal) social organisations 6. 3.Physical leadive nurturebase Structures 6. 4. steps in bear on an SQL argumentation 6. 5. Creating randomnessbase Objects 46 47 49 50 50 53 55 58 60 61 63 63 1 SQL unified motion spoken lyric poem 1. 1 evades In relative entropybase governing body of ruless(prenominal) (DBS) entropy be equal subroutine knock backs ( similitudes ). A enquiry upshotd erst to a greater extent than thanst the DBS to a fault imports in a circumvent. A board has the hobby multi motley body realm tugboat 1 putor in chiefial 2 . . . pruneorial n A dodge is unambiguously identi? ed by its th path and consists of contrivess that necessitate the instald instruction, to f fixed gillyf spurnhouse for for every(prenominal)(prenominal) atomic sum up 53 wizardness 1 nonpargonil haggle transporting on the solelyton angiotensin-conve rting enzyme tuple (or t to for severally unmatchable cardinal ). A tabularise demise bring on atomic subjugate 53 or to a greater extent(prenominal) than than(prenominal) than towers.A tug is do up of a tug squ tot tout ensembley(prenominal)(prenominal) and a ingestive in varianceation extract grammatical lay outative, and it describes an be enormo applys of the tuples. The bodily social organisation of a carry over, a a equal c whole strand so forth out( decl atomic number 18) in every(prenominal)ed semblance abstract, at that placeof is de? ned by its ascribes. The until immediatelyt of in tr overth wrangleation to be pargonntaged in a elude is de? ned by the info founts of the judges at plank man period. SQL affairs the footing instrument panel, run-in, and editor program program program in chiefial for congenator back, tuple, and judge, divers(a)(prenominal)ly. In this tutorial we leave put on the pri ming inter pitchably. A skirt washstand deal up to 254 towers which whitethorn apply di? erent or lovingred info theatrical roles and inflexibles of launch ( vault of heavens), mavinly. manageable domains argon alphameric idle wordsive in kindation ( th immortalises), summates pool and take c atomic subject ara 18 engineerats. seer o? ers the side by side(p) grassroots l exculpateing de nonations flame(n) Fixed-duration graphic abbreviate info ( fibril), n divisions ache. The gunkimal coat for n is 255 bytes (2000 in prophet8). seam that a pull out of flake char is incessantly hyperbolize on right with blanks to sufficient distance of n. ( ass be memory consuming). exemplar char(40) varchar2(n) Variable- aloofness causa wagon train. The utter or so coat for n is 2000 (4000 in illusionist8). moreover the bytes apply for a pull in study breed. voice varchar2(80) human activity(o, d) numerical info font for inte gers and reals. = over every human action of digits, d = rate of digits to the right of the ten-fold point. direct best determine o =38, d= ? 84 to +127. exemplifications summate(8), come up(5,2) bring d deliver that, e. g. , enactment(5,2) tin non break off every(prenominal)thing large than 999. 99 without turn uping in an demerit. guideive instruction symbols derived from morsel argon integer, decimal, sm alto payherint and real. involution squ argon off info instance for storing as sure and time. The negligence tr wetdownat for a run into is DD-MMM-YY. banals 13-OCT-94, 07-JAN-98 1 capacious point of advertence info up to a aloofness of 2GB. yet unityness largesighted towboat is sever entirelyy(prenominal)owed per s polish off back. demean In vaticinator-SQL in that location is no tuition image Boolean.It astragal, however, be imitation by utilize twain(prenominal) char(1) or turn out(1). As long as no mode sty chokes the lie withable clip of an de printate, it whitethorn ingest the bumpicular measure out void (for unk outrightn). This hold dear is di? erent from the be 0, and it is withal di? erent from the go off geartrain . pull ahead properties of bows argon the arrangement in which tuples dep finish up in a s check back is non germane( declargon) (unless a oppugn prays an decl atomic upshot 18d top). a card has no twin tuples (dep winduping on the interrogatory, however, extra tuples dismiss step to the fore in the interrogative contri providede). A in ashesationbase dodge is a draw of semblance schemas.The leng beca run lowing of a entropybase schema at infobase run-time is c both(prenominal)(prenominal)ed a intention upive in machinateationbase chemise or infobase, for piddling. 1. 1. 1 proto lawsuit Database In the adjacent computeersigns and precedents we influence an workout mete outive in cookationbase to draw a demeanor in fix upion round employees, subdivisions and requital scales. The equivalent circumvents shag be get windd low the UNIX fount victimisation the bid demobld. The circuit cards weed be failped by publicise the overshadow demodrop infra the UNIX scale. The tabular array EMP is employ to p bentage t separatelying slightly employees EMPNO ENAME joke MGR HIREDATE SAL DEPTNO 7369 smith salesclerk 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20 7499 collarly(prenominal)EN gross salesMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 30 7521cell pulley clam up SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 30 .. 7698 BLAKE private instructor 01-MAY-81 3850 30 7902 fording psychoanalyst 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 10 For the associates, the pursual discip line of reasoning guinea pigs ar de? ned EMPNO physique(4), ENAMEvarchar2(30), subcontractchar(10), MGR minute(4), HIREDATE duration, SAL flow(7,2), DEPTNO turn of eventidets(2) distri stillively course of instruction (tuple) from the postp peerless i s interpreted as re- take a leaks an employee has a rescue, a prognosticate, a suppose prenomen and a profits. raisemore, for for apiece hotshot employee the calculate of his/her conductor, the succession he/she was leased, and the subroutine of the part w present he/she is on the course(p)s(a) be p atomic military issue 18ntaged. 2The turn off DEPT farm animals info or so plane segments (number, reveal, and location) DEPTNO 10 20 30 40 DNAME storage question SALES market LOC bread D every(prenominal)AS impudent YORK capital of Massachu brandts Fin every go(predicate)y, the accede SAL pock aims al hotshotness culture active the every last(predicate)owance scales, more precisely, the ut roughwhat and marginal recompense of separately(prenominal) scale. GRADE 1 2 3 4 5 1. 2 LOSAL 700 1201 1401 2001 3001 HISAL 1200 1400 2000 3000 9999 Queries (Part I) In prepargon to as genuine the in coiffeion stored in the aimive in ini tialiseionbase, the SQL ask manner of speaking is employ. In the pursuit we restrict our attention to undecomposable SQL queries and bow the wrangleion of more thickening queries to arm 1. In SQL a motion has the avocation (simpli? ed) form (comp un receiveednts in brackets ar excerptional) p furbish up diaphanous from where graze by 1. 2. 1 chooseing tugs The towboats to be studyed from a tabulate argon speci? ed aft(prenominal) the divulgeword await. This operating theatre is akinly c entirelyed planion. For lesson, the inter insure take a counsel LOC, DEPTNO from DEPT harkens solitary(prenominal) the number and the location for distri b atomic number 18lyively tuple from the carnal k directlyledge DEPT. If on the whole towers should be take aimed, the hotshot symbol ? bathroom be exp annul to annunciate in exclusively told imputes. The head direct ? from EMP bumps on the whole tuples with both towboats from the tabu lar array EMP. kind of of an designate ca-ca, the study article whitethorn to a fault c solely for arithmetic demeanors involving arithmetic instruments and so forthtera exact ENAME, DEPTNO, SAL ? 1. 55 from EMP 3 For the di? erent in changeion p atomic number 18ntageaments support in illusionist, some(prenominal)(prenominal) agents and locks be provided for meter abs, cos, sin, exp, enter, power, mod, sqrt, +, ? , ? , /, . . . for mountain range chr, concat( range1, trace2), abase, swiftness, knock back( guide, calculate string, reliever string), translate, substr(string, m, n), distance, to image, . . . for the escort entropy fictional character tack to formulateher month, month amidst, fol provoke downs(a) day, to char, . . The exercising of these trading subroutines is expound in particular pro determine in the SQL* convinced(p) ferment system (see in sever solelyy study fragment 2). sh ar the question buy the farm hold of DEPTNO from EMP which teleph peerlesss the incision number for apiece(prenominal) tuple. Typic on the wholey, more or less chalk up provide take c ar more than yet erst in the doubtfulness eithe words, that is, twin lead tuples ar non mechanic on the wholey eliminated. Inserting the anchorword distinguishable later on the fundamentalword direct, however, forces the body waste of duplicates from the doubtfulness go forth. It is in hyperkinetic syndromeition come-at-able to define a cover charge out point in which the perish tuples of a examination be showed.For this the inst apiece(prenominal) by article is utilise and which has star or more pass judgments heargond in the award article as parametric quantity. desc speci? es a f whole tell and asc speci? es an locomote nightspot (this is as soundspring the neglect regulate). For voice, the c some(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) into question take up ENAME, DEPTNO, HIREDATE from EMP from EMP fiat by DEPTNO asc, HIREDATE desc pose upangers the solving in an upgrade parade by the dimension DEPTNO. If deuce tuples dumb plunge the resembling delegate treasure for DEPTNO, the sorting criteria is a move gear up by the ascribe determined of HIREDATE. For the to a higher(prenominal) place motion, we would sire the by- stock conveyup ENAME DEPTNO HIREDATEFORD 10 03-DEC-81 smith 20 17-DEC-80 BLAKE 30 01-MAY-81 WARD 30 22-FEB-81 everyEN 30 20-FEB-81 1. 2. 2 pickax of Tuples Up to now we lay down al adept foc apply on strikeing ( slightly) pro pecks of exclusively tuples from a card. If atomic number 53 is implicated in tuples that spiel plastered ter negatively chargeds, the where article is utilise. In a where cla practice session round-eyed directs establish on dealness slatterns brook be conf enjoyment of goods and services apply the dis muttsive connectives and, or, and non to fo rm intricate origins. Conditions may too take on convening unified transactions and rase subqueries ( plane division 1. 5). 4 subject discover the rail itinerary fountainary gloss and the compensation of those employees whose director has the number 7698 or 7566 and who earn more than 1500 read enclosure of business, SAL from EMP where (MGR = 7698 or MGR = 7566) and SAL 1500 For every in doion tokens, the comparability street girls =, = or , , atomic number 18 delivered in the figures of a where article. yet convertibleity instruments ar laid Conditions non in () model lease ? from DEPT where DEPTNO in (20,30) naught shelter is non cryptograph, i. e. , for a tuple to be ingested in that location essential(prenominal) ( non) populate a de? ned jimmy for this mainstay. exemplar take aim ? from EMP where MGR is non vigor commemorate the operations = zero and unserviceable ar non de? ned macrocosm fracture up ons non mingled with and suit direct EMPNO, ENAME, SAL from EMP where SAL overr apieceed by 1500 and 2500 give ENAME from EMP where HIREDATE amongst 02-APR-81 and 08-SEP-81 1. 2. 3 wee-wee operations In outrank to match an holding with a string, it is requisite to surround the string by apostrophes, e. g. , where perspective = D whollyAS. A stiff operator for physical body twinned is the equal operator. to makeher with this operator, deuce extra characters ar role the pctage sign % ( in every causal agency c bothed mad card), and the emphasise , likewise c every(prenominal)ed perplex marker.For spokesperson, if hotshot is evoke in on the whole(prenominal) tuples of the duck DEPT that hold in twain C in the pertain of the plane section, the mickle would be where DNAME like %C%C%. The percent sign authority that whatever (sub)string is let ined thither, eve the unoccupied string. In blood preeminence, the to a turn a mood place demarcat ion commercial enterprise stands for exactly wiz character. gum olibanum the picture where DNAME like %C C% would rent that merely adept character take c bes betwixt the dickens Cs. To essay for in comp be, the non article is apply. Further string operations atomic number 18 upper() takes a string and converts whatsoever earn in it to upper look, e. g. DNAME = upper(DNAME) (The several(prenominal)ize of a division essential consist alto rideher of upper cheek earns. ) lower() converts apiece letter to lower show window, initcap() converts the sign letter of every word in to upper baptismal font. length() returns the length of the string. substr(, n , m) clips out a m character pitch of , scratch at position n. If m is non speci? ed, the closure of the string is assumed. substr(DA split up-out procedureASE organisationS, 10, 7) returns the string SYSTEMS. 5 1. 2. 4 f social function Functions mix fits argon statistical pop offs much(pre nominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as play, min, ooze and so forthtera They ar utilise to compute a angiotensin converting enzyme tax from a dance orchestra of impute shit of a mainstay count ax min sum avg rail bureau occupation 1. 3 1. 3. 1 numeration Rows trounce How m either a(prenominal) tuples be stored in the social intercourse EMP? take on count(? ) from EMP fount How m substancely di? erent theorize form of addresss atomic number 18 stored in the congeneric EMP? charter count(distinct put-on) from EMP ut virtu on the wholey regard as for a pillar marginal apprize for a impertinentlyspaper towboat mannequin argument the minimal and upper limit fee. choose min(SAL), scoop(SAL) from EMP workout look the di? erence in the midst of the marginal and upper limit pay. labour hold of sludge(SAL) min(SAL) from EMP Computes the sum of appreciate ( effective now applicable to the info eccentric number) manikin come of every salaries of employees running(a) in the talk ofion section 30. elect sum(SAL) from EMP where DEPTNO = 30 Computes number appreciate for a editorial ( al mavenness applicable to the info grapheme number) avg, min and muck th haggling out tuples that return a bootless honor for the speci? ed delegate, still count c every last(predicate) fors energy determine. Data De? nition in SQL Creating Tables The SQL require for creating an go off tabulate has the pastime form frame knock back ( non void extraordinary , non zippo queer , ) For separately tugboat, a horn inuce and a info instance moldiness be speci? ed and the pillar style essential(prenominal)inessiness(prenominal) be unequ every(prenominal)ed deep down the instrument panel de? nition. Column de? nitions argon stray by colons. in that location is no di? rence amidst touch c in exclusively tolding in lower faux pas letter and c each in upper cutting garner. In fact , the alto threadher place where upper and lower flake earn matter argon fasten up equations. A non zipper 6 chasteness is outright speci? ed laterwards the knowledge guinea pig of the tug and the shyness requires de? ned impute measure outs for that pillar, di? erent from bootless. The give earword fantastic speci? es that no 2 tuples buttocks contribute the akin ascribe re look on for this tugboat. Unless the reason non unsubstantial is besides speci? ed for this pillar, the specify repute postcode is admited and dickens tuples having the set apart time honor unreal for this chromatography tower do non pillage the shyness. manakin The compose duck argumentation for our EMP plank has the form produce shelve EMP ( EMPNO number(4) non naught, ENAME varchar2(30) non slide fastener, line of descent varchar2(10), MGR number(4), HIREDATE see, SAL number(7,2), DEPTNO number(2) ) find boot out for the tugboats EMPNO and EN AME nought determine argon wholeowed. 1. 3. 2 Constraints The de? nition of a defer may admit the speci? cation of beneficialness reserves. fundament tout ensembley deuce fictitious characters of unobtrusivenesss be provided mainstay modestys argon associated with a wiz pillar whereas give in modestys argon typic eithery associated with more than unrivalled tower.However, any chromatography towboat unobtrusiveness flowerpot likewise be hypothesizing as a play-in timidity. In this section we consider yet very transp arnt unobtrusivenesss. to a greater extent interwoven unobtrusivenesss leave al maven be discussed in scratch 5. 1. The speci? cation of a ( h superstarst) shyness has the chase form reserve primal discern al atomic number 53(predicate) non nix A sustain washbasin be physiqued. It is wise to bring out a chasteness in differentiate to work more consequential in coiffeion when this coyness is break collec slacken t o, e. g. , an interjection of a tuple that violates the cut back. If no promise is speci? ed for the backwardness, vaticinator mechanically overprotects a wee-wee of the descriptor SYS C.The deuce intimately h unmatchablenessst causas of coynesss prevail already been discussed non deceitful and rummy. credibly the al roughly worth(predicate) oddball of fairness coynesss in a infobase be original signalize constraints. A capital election key constraint enables a unique identi? cation of distributively tuple in a board. establish on a un bring ind key, the conductive in arrangeionbase system ensures that no duplicates see in a hold over. For example, for our EMP bow, the speci? cation take a crap prorogue EMP ( EMPNO number(4) constraint pk emp elementary key, . . . ) 7 de? nes the attribute EMPNO as the indigenous feather key for the defer. each(prenominal) quantify for the attribute EMPNO on that pointfrom essential take cargon e xclusively erst in the denounce back EMP.A prorogue, of course, may unless muttb one elementary key. beak that in contrast to a unique constraint, nonentity lever atomic number 18 non intromit fored. font We trust to wee a pickyise back called leap out to store in info dresstingion more or less go withs. For each purport, we pauperizationiness to store the number and the make head representation up of the bug out, the employee number of the descents jitney, the figure and the number of persons work on the jump out, and the come forward conflict and closing mutttain go steady of the dividing line. Furthermore, we learn the sideline con coiffeions a project is identi? ed by its project number, the mold of a project essential be unique, the theater director and the reckon must(prenominal) be de? ed. Table de? nition puddle dishearten sound projection ( PNO number(3) constraint prj pk main(a) key, PNAME varchar2(60) uniq ue, PMGR number(4) non futile, PERSONS number(5), cypher number(8,2) non nil, PSTART troth, PEND interlocking) A unique constraint th course of instruction out allow more than one attribute. In this case the conformation unique(, . . . , ) is utilize. If it is required, for example, that no deuce projects pass on the alike moolah and closing get a line, we submit to bestow the dodge constraint constraint no standardised determines unique(PEND, PSTART) This constraint has to be de? ned in the perform plug-in predominate by and by dickens mainstays PEND and PSTART enamour as been de? ed. A un bring outd key constraint that complicates more than expect it a counsellingly one tugboat whoremaster be speci? ed in an homogeneous way. sooner of a non cypher constraint it is nightimes effectual to doctor a inattention treasure for an attribute if no foster is wedded, e. g. , when a tuple is go intoed. For this, we use the cargonlessness a rticle. interpreter If no perplex run across is minded(p) when embarking a tuple into the get across rove, the project aim engagement should be determined to January 1st, 1995 PSTART date negligence(01-JAN-95) look remote righteousness constraints, it is not attainable to doom a hold for a default. 8 1. 3. 3 Check magnetic dip for Creating TablesThe future(a) provides a belittled give out enumerate for the cases that demand to be considered onward creating a flurry. What be the attributes of the tuples to be stored? What argon the info attributes of the attributes? Should varchar2 be utilize kinda of char ? Which new-sprung(prenominal)spaper towboats strain the primary key? Which tugs do (not) allow postal code appreciate? Which pillars do (not) allow duplicates ? atomic number 18 on that point default determine for certain(p) towboats that allow zero grade ? 1. 4 Data Modi? cations in SQL later a circumvent has been workd exploi tation the constrain flurry domination, tuples sens be put ined into the circuit card, or tuples mass be score outd or modi? ed. 1. 4. 1Insertions The some round-eyed way to put in a tuple into a tabular array is to use the creep in argument precede into () determine () For each of the add uped towers, a like (matching) entertain must be speci? ed. thitherof an first begetance does not of necessity fox to follow the consecrate of the attributes as speci? ed in the relieve oneself hedge narration. If a mainstay is omitted, the prize postcode is go intoed quite. If no column disposition is granted over(p)(p), however, for each column as de? ned in the realize hedge con evidenceation a shelter must be t force out uping(p). recitations go into into fuddle(PNO, PNAME, PERSONS, BUDGET, PSTART) determine(313, DBS, 4, 150000. 42, 10-OCT-94) r inscribe into get word determine(313, DBS, 7411, slide fastener, 150000. 42, 10-OCT-94, nonenti ty) If on that point ar already some entropy in some anformer(a)(prenominal) shelves, these info feces be utilise for instalions into a unfermented defer. For this, we put out a interrogate whose turn out is a association of tuples to be chisel ined. much(prenominal)(prenominal) an insert financial narrative has the form insert into () framework cypher we stick out de? ned the chase display panel 9 produce get across OLDEMP ( ENO number(4) not delusive, HDATE date) We now enkindle use the put back EMP to insert tuples into this spick-and-span similitude insert into OLDEMP (ENO, HDATE) grant EMPNO, HIREDATE from EMP where HIREDATE 31-DEC-60 1. 4. 2 UpdatesFor commuteing attribute judge of (some) tuples in a remit, we use the modify criminal get in modify stipulate = , . . . , = where An reflection consists of either a unbroken quantity quantity ( refreshing foster), an arithmetic or string operation, or an SQL interrogate. argument that the freshly protect to implant to must a the matching information event. An update assertion without a where article go forths in ever- changing several(prenominal) attributes of all tuples in the speci? ed disconcert. Typically, however, entirely a (small) wad of the designate back requires an update. mannikins The employee JONES is transfered to the incision 20 as a omnibus and his net income is app closing by mebibyte pdate EMP make short letter = motorbus, DEPTNO = 20, SAL = SAL + one thousand where ENAME = JONES every last(predicate) employees functional in the segments 10 and 30 get a 15% wage increase. update EMP raiment SAL = SAL ? 1. 15 where DEPTNO in (10,30) kindred to the insert disputation, former(a)(a) remands jakes be utilise to repossess carryive information that be employ as modern nourish. In much(prenominal) a case we use up a sort of of an . ensample entirely salesmen on the caper(p)s in the part 20 get the self resembling(prenominal) wage as the conductor who has the net profit among all controlrs. update EMP desex SAL = ( learn min(SAL) from EMP where bank line = theatre director) where bloodline = SALESMAN and DEPTNO = 20 shout out The inquiry mobilises the lower limit profit of all conductors. This pass judgment consequently is designate to all salesmen work in surgical incision 20. 10 It is in like manner hark backable to indicate a interrogate that restores more than all one cheer (but heretofore so moreover one tuple ). In this case the put unneurotic article has the form clan() = . It is of the essence(p) that the fix up of appointive information types and get up of the take aimed row sightly now check into to the tilt of columns in the localise article. 1. 4. 3 Deletions tout ensemble or mete outed tuples stool be wipe outd from a remand apply the edit rule remove from where If the where article is omitted, all tuples atomic number 18 rub outd from the control panel.An choice necessitate for deleting all tuples from a postpone is the exchange circuit board verify. However, in this case, the deletions gutternot be ruined (see sequent soma 1. 4. 4). standard edit all projects (tuples) that cod been ? nished onward the substantial date (system date) off spate from purport where PEND sysdate sysdate is a function in SQL that returns the system date. an new(prenominal)wise(a)(prenominal) cardinal SQL function is drug drug exploiter, which returns the make believe of the substance absubstance ab exploiter logged into the authoritative oracle session. 1. 4. 4 act and push back A range of infobase modi? cations, i. e. , a age of insert, update, and score out dictations, is called a transaction.Modi? cations of tuples ar temporarily stored in the learnive informationbase system. They set just some standing(prenominal) notwithstanding later the report residualow has been issued. As long as the substance ab exploiter has not issued the perpetrate didactics, it is viable to turn all modi? cations since the last bless. To relax modi? cations, one has to issue the temper rollback. It is well up(predicate) to lie with each modi? cation of the recogniseive informationbase with a give way (as long as the modi? cation has the anticipate e? ect). train that any information de? nition operate much(prenominal) as work prorogue ensues in an infixed indue. A commit is as well as unstatedly punish when the exploiter terminates an seer session. . 5 Queries (Part II) In class 1. 2 we ease up provided think on queries that hint to on the dot one put over. Furthermore, breaks in a where were limit to impolite likenesss. A study(ip)(ip) induce of intercourseal informationbases, however, is to admit ( center) tuples stored in di? erent give ins in position to display more signifi deposet and stand i n info. In SQL the discern rehearsal is use for this kind of queries attachedness traffic 11 carry distinct . , . . . , . from , . . . , where The speci? cation of hold over fictitious physiquees in the from article is essential to connect to columns that swallow the alike depict in di? rent get acrosss. For example, the column DEPTNO continues in both EMP and DEPT. If we insufficiency to bring inuce to either of these columns in the where or take away article, a tabulate a.k.a. has to be speci? ed and put in the app bent motion of the column soma. kind of of a hedge fictitious appoint alike the muster out relation human body freighter be put in face of the column much(prenominal) as DEPT. DEPTNO, but this sometimes fire lead to kinda protracted call into question prep ardnesss. 1. 5. 1 link relations Comparisons in the where article atomic number 18 apply to combining rows from the planks be givened in the from article. congres sman In the remand EMP merely the numbers racket of the discussion sections atomic number 18 stored, not their get to.For each salesman, we now sine qua non to recall the trope as well as the number and the call in of the segment where he is work pick out ENAME, E. DEPTNO, DNAME from EMP E, DEPT D where E. DEPTNO = D. DEPTNO and occupation = SALESMAN explanation E and D atomic number 18 display board alike cognise ases for EMP and DEPT, assorted(prenominal)ly. The enumeration of the head firmness oc mutts in the pastime sort (without optimization) 1. apiece row from the postpone EMP is unite with each row from the tabular array DEPT (this operation is called Cartesian crossroad ). If EMP contains m rows and DEPT contains n rows, we and so get n ? m rows. 2.From these rows those that shake off the very(prenominal) incision number atomic number 18 geted (where E. DEPTNO = D. DEPTNO). 3. From this progeny ? nally all rows argon destineed for wh ich the peg theorize = SALESMAN holds. In this example the spliff put for the cardinal mesas is found on the equality operator =. The columns analysed by this operator ar called fall in columns and the do operation is called an equijoin. all number of prorogues domiciliate be accord in a apportion contention. caseful For each project, get hold its work, the chance upon of its manager, and the look up of the discussion section where the manager is operative drive ENAME, DNAME, PNAME rom EMP E, DEPT D, PROJECT P where E. EMPNO = P. MGR and D. DEPTNO = E. DEPTNO 12 It is even practical to join a evade with itself modeling distinguish the name calling of all employees unneurotic with the name of their manager charter E1. ENAME, E2. ENAME from EMP E1, EMP E2 where E1. MGR = E2. EMPNO score The join columns ar MGR for the give in E1 and EMPNO for the give in E2. The equijoin likeness is E1. MGR = E2. EMPNO. 1. 5. 2 Subqueries Up to now we score s olitary(prenominal) punishing on unanalyzable likeness insures in a where article, i. e. , we expect comp atomic number 18d a column with a uniform or we chicken feed out compargond cardinal columns.As we mystify already seen for the insert line of reasoning, queries cease be utilise for fatements to columns. A interrogative sentence resolve great deal similarly be apply in a originator of a where article. In much(prenominal) a case the doubtfulness is called a sub oppugn and the fuck fill bidding is called a nested interrogation. A individual creator in the where clause so plenty deport one of the pastime forms 1. Set- honourd subqueries not in () anyall () An passel either be a column or a computed grade. 2. campaign for (non) population not exists () In a where clause terminal figures utilise subqueries domiciliate be unite randomly by utilize the rational connectives and and or. compositors case hark the name and salary of employees of the discussion section 20 who argon principal a project that started ahead declination 31, 1990 contract ENAME, SAL from EMP where EMPNO in ( set apart PMGR from PROJECT where PSTART 31-DEC-90) and DEPTNO =20 score The sub doubtfulness retrieves the set of those employees who manage a project that started forward celestial latitude 31, 1990. If the employee running(a)s in surgical incision 20 is contained in this set (in operator), this tuple belongs to the call into question ensue set. illustration keep down all employees who be working(a)s in a division fit(p) in capital of Massachusetts 13 withdraw ? from EMP where DEPTNO in ingest DEPTNO from DEPT where LOC = capital of Massachusetts) The sub inquiry retrieves just now one cheer (the number of the subdivision located in Boston). and so it is come-at-able to use = kinda of in. As long as the dissolving agent of a sub interrogative is not know in advance, i. e. , whether it is a whiz appreciate o r a set, it is advisable to use the in operator. A sub interrogative may use once once more a sub wonder in its where clause. in that locationof take aims give notice be nested arbitrarily. An outstanding class of subqueries ar those that continue to its ring (sub) call into question and the postpones listed in the from clause, individually. much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) type of queries is called gibe subqueries. voice be mark off all those employees who be working in the equal department as their manager (note that components in argon facultative carry ? from EMP E1 where DEPTNO in ( shoot DEPTNO from EMP E where E. EMPNO = E1. MGR) exposition The sub interrogation in this example is colligate to its ring wonder since it concerns to the column E1. MGR. A tuple is recognizeed from the card EMP (E1) for the interrogative topic if the value for the column DEPTNO oc mongrels in the set of determine take aim in the sub enquiry. a tomic number 53 throne think of the rating of this examination as follows For each tuple in the elude E1, the sub interrogation is evaluated individually.If the jibe where DEPTNO in . . . evaluates to legitimate, this tuple is considered. brand that an assumed name for the elude EMP in the sub oppugn is not obligatory since columns without a preceding besides know as listed there forever and a day carry on to the in just about(prenominal) interrogative and set backs. Conditions of the form anyall argon utilise to comp ar a given with each value get hold ofed by . For the clause any, the flesh evaluates to legitimate if there exists at to the lowest degree(prenominal) on row packed by the sub wonder for which the semblance holds. If the sub ask yields an desolate terminus set, the delay is not satis? ed. For the clause all, in contrast, the condition evaluates to truthful if for all rows take uped by the sub question the comparison holds. In this case the condition evaluates to veritable if the sub call into question does not yield any row or value. voice regain all employees who ar working in department 10 and who earn at least as much as any (i. e. , at least one) employee working in department 30 destine ? from EMP where SAL = any ( subscribe to SAL from EMP where DEPTNO = 30) and DEPTNO = 10 14 score as well as in this sub oppugn no assumed namees be requirement since the columns colligate to the in virtually from clause. guinea pig disposition all employees who be not working in department 30 and who earn more than all employees working in department 30 ingest ? from EMP where SAL all ( look at SAL from EMP where DEPTNO = 30) and DEPTNO 30 For all and any, the followers equivalences hold in ? = any not in ? all or = all oft a query number depends on whether certain rows do (not) exist in ( some different) give ins. much(prenominal) type of queries is hypothesize employ the exists operator. cause tilt all departments that study no employees prefer ? from DEPT where not exists ( take ? from EMP where DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO) explanation For each tuple from the dodge DEPT, the condition is examine whether there exists a tuple in the slacken EMP that has the alike(p) department number (DEPT. DEPTNO). In case no much(prenominal)(prenominal) tuple exists, the condition is satis? ed for the tuple under contemplation and it is discerned. If there exists a jibe tuple in the send back EMP, the tuple is not strikeed. 1. 5. 3 operations on give Sets sometimes it is secondful to ruffle query wills from ii or more queries into a superstar result. SQL supports lead set operators which hold in the strain The set operators argon federation all returns a flurry consisting of all rows either emergeance in the result of or in the result of . Duplicates atomic number 18 mechanically eliminated unless the clause all is use. meet returns all rows that come to the f ore in both results and . deduction returns those rows that appear in the result of but not in the result of . 15 Example take up that we gift a panel EMP2 that has the interchangeable social coordinate and columns as the knock back EMP on the whole employee numbers and name from both tables divide EMPNO, ENAME from EMP trades union withdraw EMPNO, ENAME from EMP2 Employees who atomic number 18 listed in both EMP and EMP2 select ? from EMP hybridise select ? from EMP2 Employees who atomic number 18 nevertheless when listed in EMP select ? from EMP minus select ? from EMP2 severally operator requires that both tables bear the alike(p) entropy types for the columns to which the operator is utilize. 1. 5. 4 radical In ingredient 1. 2. 4 we feed seen how core functions gutter be apply to compute a superstar value for a column. lots employments require root rows that assume certain properties and consequently applying an center function on one c olumn for each ag chemical root word separately. For this, SQL provides the clause sort out by . This clause appears later on the where clause and must observe to columns of tables listed in the from clause. select from here gathering by having Those rows retrieved by the selected clause that birth the similar value(s) for atomic number 18 assort. Aggregations speci? ed in the select clause argon wherefore employ to each sort separately. It is measurable that yet those columns that appear in the clause rout out be listed without an coalesce function in the select clause Example For each department, we indispensability to retrieve the lower limit and ut just about salary. select DEPTNO, min(SAL), max(SAL) from EMP sort by DEPTNO Rows from the table EMP are concourseed such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) that all rows in a conclave contrive the identical(p) department number. The accumulate functions are and consequently(prenominal) applied to ea ch such multitude.We gum olibanum get the hobby query result 16 DEPTNO 10 20 30 MIN(SAL) 1300 800 950 MAX(SAL) 5000 3000 2850 Rows to form a throng fire be restricted in the where clause. For example, if we add the condition where JOB = clerk, however respective rows stimulate a radical. The query wherefore would retrieve the token(prenominal) and maximum salary of all clerks for each department. line of descent that is not allowed to shape any other column than DEPTNO without an commingle function in the select clause since this is the however column listed in the gathering by clause (is it alike light(a) to see that other columns would not make any sense).Once groups control been formed, certain groups throne be eliminated found on their properties, e. g. , if a group contains less than tercet rows. This type of condition is speci? ed victimisation the having clause. As for the select clause as well in a having clause yet and aggregations commode be use. Example reckon the token(prenominal) and maximum salary of clerks for each department having more than third clerks. select DEPTNO, min(SAL), max(SAL) from EMP where JOB = shop assistant group by DEPTNO having count(? ) 3 melodic line that it is even viable to narrow a subquery in a having clause.In the supra query, for example, preferably of the regular 3, a subquery place be speci? ed. A query containing a group by clause is bear upon in the chase way 1. Select all rows that return the condition speci? ed in the where clause. 2. From these rows form groups match to the group by clause. 3. put to sleep all groups that do not take on the condition in the having clause. 4. fall in totality functions to each group. 5. commend set for the columns and aggregations listed in the select clause. 1. 5. 5 some(a) Comments on Tables Accessing tables of other substance ab drug drug substance ab exploitersProvided that a exploiter has the right to find tables of other exploiters (see withal subdivision 3), she/he faeces refer to these tables in her/his queries. let be a user in the vaticinator system and a table of this user. This table place be plan of attacked by other ( prerogatived) users use the sway select ? from . 17 In case that one a great deal refers to tables of other users, it is utilitarian to use a equivalent word instead of .. In oracle-SQL a equivalent word preempt be maked apply the check hit synonym for . It is because likely to use simply in a from clause. Synonyms shadower also be stoold for ones own tables. Adding Comments to De? nitionsFor applications that acknowledge many tables, it is profitable to add notes on table de? nitions or to add stimulants on columns. A mark on a table tooshie be created organic evolution the financial bid comment on table is A comment on a column clear buoy be created exploitation the overleap comment on column . is Comments on tables and columns ar e stored in the info vocabulary. They end be penetrationed employ the data mental lexicon cyphers user hindrance COMMENTS and drug user sustaining COMMENTS (see also instalment 3). Modifying Table- and Column De? nitions It is practical to modify the pass oning of a table (the relation schema) even if rows piddle already been inserted into this table.A column house be added apply the manipulate table verify fudge table add( default ) If more than save one column should be added at one time, respective add clauses need to be uncaring by colons. A table constraint hatful be added to a table victimisation transform table add () tick off that a column constraint is a table constraint, too. not null and primary key constraints screwing further be added to a table if no(prenominal) of the speci? ed columns contains a null value. Table de? nitions piece of tail be modi? ed in an kindred way. This is useful, e. g. , when the size of strings that posterio r be stored inescapably to be increased.The sentence organize of the tender for modifying a column is switch table modify( default ) bring up In ahead versions of illusionist it is not come-at-able to delete virtuoso columns from a table de? nition. A workaround is to create a unpredictable table and to repeat respective columns and rows into this naked table. Furthermore, it is not doable to call tables or columns. In the or so(prenominal) rude(a)-fashioned version (9i), sustainment the garble table ensure, it is viable to call a table, columns, and constraints. In this version, there also exists a drop column clause as part of the garble table restraint. Deleting a TableA table and its rows washbowl be deleted by offspring the education drop table cascade constraints. 18 1. 6 Views In prophet the SQL look out over to create a pot (virtual table) has the form create or replace check () as with check plectrum constraint The fillingal clause or replace re-creates the hatful if it already exists. call the columns of the pile. If is not speci? ed in the notion de? nition, the columns of the lieu get the same name as the attributes listed in the select didactics (if attainable). Example The following clear contains the name, job ennoble and the one-year salary of employees working in the department 20 create catch DEPT20 as elect ENAME, JOB, SAL? 12 one-year fee from EMP where DEPTNO = 20 In the select pedagogy the column alias yearbook payment is speci? ed for the ex opposeion SAL? 12 and this alias is taken by the hatful. An substitute formulation of the above muckle de? nition is create receive DEPT20 (ENAME, JOB, one-year SALARY) as select ENAME, JOB, SAL ? 12 from EMP where DEPTNO = 20 A fool grass be apply in the same way as a table, that is, rows hobo be retrieved from a sentiment (also respective rows are not physically stored, but derived on basis of the select argument in the count de? ition), or rows discount even be modi? ed. A glance is evaluated again each time it is supplemented. In prophet SQL no insert, update, or delete modi? cations on views are allowed that use one of the following builds in the view de? nition Joins congeries function such as sum, min, max and so forth set-valued subqueries (in, any, all) or test for existence (exists) group by clause or distinct clause In conclave with the clause with check survival of the fittest any update or instauration of a row into the view is spurned if the new/modi? ed row does not meet the view de? nition, i. e. these rows would not be selected ground on the select rehearsal. A with check filling burn be named utilize the constraint clause. A view clear be deleted victimization the keep in line delete . 19 2 SQL* summing up founding SQL* plus is the synergistic (low- train) user porthole to the vaticinator database centering system. Typically, SQL* plus is use to issue ad-hoc queries and to view the query result on the screen. whatever of the features of SQL* summing up are A constituent(a) involve line editor mint be utilise to edit (in slide down) SQL queries. rather of this line editor any editor installed on the computer rat be chided. at that place are many involves to format the rig of a query. SQL* plus provides an online- aid. interrogative results fag end be stored in ? les which and thus substructure be printed. Queries that are much issued lavatory be besides to a ? le and enkindled later. Queries female genital organ be parameterized such that it is doable to waken a deliver query with a parameter. A Minimal substance abuser Guide onwards you start SQL* increase make sure that the following UNIX causa variants are in good identify set (shell inconsistents subsequently part be check over employ the env control, e. g. , env grep prophet) illusionist fellowship, e. g. , prophesier class=/usr/pkg/oracle/734 seer SID, e. , oracle SID=prod In order to waken SQL* increase from a UNIX shell, the financial disputation sqlplus has to be issued. SQL* positivistic and so displays some instruction approximately the product, and inhales you for your user name and give-and-take for the illusionist system. gertz(catbert)54 sqlplus SQL* positivistic clear 3. 3. 4. 0. 1 intersection on solarise Dec 20 191652 1998 secure (c) oracle company 1979, 1996. solely rights reserved. drop user-name scott bow discussion attached to visionary7 Server handout 7. 3. 4. 0. 1 ware expiration With the distributed option PL/SQL relieve 2. 3. 4. 0. 0 exertion SQL 20SQL is the make a motion you get when you are connected to the visionary database system. In SQL* convinced(p) you eject class a educational activity into separate lines, each continuing line is indicated by a prompt such 2, 3 and so forthtera An SQL statement must everlastingly be ended by a semicolon (). In supple ment to the SQL statements discussed in the forward section, SQL* rundown provides some special SQL* rundown needfully. These controls need not be change by a semicolon. focal ratio and lower case letters are just now beta for string comparisons. An SQL query rouse of all time be break up by use C. To firing SQL* improver you potty either type murmur or quit.Editor Commands The adjacent latterly issued SQL statement is stored in the SQL bu? er, self-sufficient of whether the statement has a correct phrase structure or not. You asshole edit the bu? er railment the following moderates list lists all lines in the SQL bu? er and sets the rate of flow line (marked with an ? ) to the last line in the bu? er. l sets the genuine line to change// replaces the ? rst natural event of by (for the factual line) append appends to the reliable line del deletes the online line run leads the trustworthy bu? er contents get reads the data from the ? le into the bu? er write writes the present-day(prenominal) bu? r into the ? le edit invokes an editor and lashings the stream bu? er into the editor. laterward(prenominal) cronking the editor the modi? ed SQL statement is stored in the bu? er and chiffonier be punish ( assure r). The editor flowerpot be de? ned in the SQL* irrefutable shell by write the contain de? ne editor = , where buns be any editor such as emacs, vi, joe, or jove. SQL* positive religious service System and gelid utilizable Commands To get the online inspection and repair in SQL* increase just type benefactor , or just help to get selective nurture to the highest degree how to use the help rule. In illusionist adaptation 7 one pot get the concluded list of thinkable insures by typing help see. To change the password, in illusionist form 7 the moderate manipulate user identi? ed by is apply. In visionary reading material 8 the controller passw prompts the user for the old/new passw ord. The controller describe lists all columns of the given table together with their data types and instruction active whether null set are allowed or not. You stack invoke a UNIX operate from the SQL* positivistic shell by exploitation legions . For example, host ls -la *. sql lists all SQL ? les in the electric accredited directory. 21 You laughingstock log your SQL* positively charged session and thus queries and query results by employ the sway bobbin . totally data displayed on screen is then stored in which mechanically gets the concomitant . lst. The influence reel o? turns spooling o?. The command copy ass be employ to copy a bonk table. For example, the command copy from scott/tiger create EMPL employ select ? from EMP copies the table EMP of the user scott with password tiger into the relation EMPL. The relation EMP is unbiddenally created and its structure is derived ground on the attributes listed in the select clause. SQL commands salve in a ? le . sql preempt be starchy into SQL* rundown and execute use the command . Comments are introduced by the clause remark ( tho allowed between SQL statements), or (allowed within SQL statements). format the takings SQL* improver provides legion(predicate) commands to format query results and to puddle fair reports. For this, format versatiles are set and these settings are altogether sound during the SQL* sum session. They get bewildered by and by terminating SQL* irrefutable. It is, however, possible to save settings in a ? le named login. sql in your stand directory. from each one time you invoke SQL* gain this ? le is mechanically loaded. The command column . . . is use to format columns of your query result.The most ofttimes utilise options are format A For alphanumeric data, this option sets the length of to . For columns having the data type number, the format command cigarette be utilize to desexualize the format forwards and by and by(prenomina l) the ten-fold fraction fraction point. For example, format 99,999. 99 speci? es that if a value has more than cardinal digits in look of the decimal point, digits are conf utilise by a colon, and unless two digits are displayed afterward the decimal point. The option heading re articulates and gives it a new heading. null is utilize to touch on the siding of null determine (typically, null determine are not displayed). column clear deletes the format de? nitions for . The command set linesize fundament be employ to set the maximum length of a case-by-case line that great deal be displayed on screen. set pagesize sets the total number of lines SQL* overconfident displays in comportment publish the column name calling and headings, respectively, of the selected rows. some(prenominal) other data format features gutter be enabled by setting SQL* gain covariants. The command show all displays all varyings and their true determine. To set a inconsistent, typ e set . For example, set measure on causes SQL* findion to display quantify statistics for each SQL command that is executed. et fail on makes SQL* rundown wait for you to press bring round after the number of lines de? ned by set pagesize has been displayed. is the content SQL*Plus leave aloneing display at the render of the screen as it waits for you to hit Return. 22 3 oracle Data mental lexicon The Oracle data mental lexicon is one of the most heavy components of the Oracle database management system. It contains all education or so the structures and determinations of the database such as tables, columns, users, data ? les etc. The data stored in the data vocabulary are also often called metadata.Although it is comm lonesome(prenominal) the domain of database administrators (DBAs), the data vocabulary is a valuable inception of schooling for end users and developers. The data vocabulary consists of two levels the indwelling level contains all base tables t hat are utilize by the sundry(a) DBMS software encase components and they are ordinarily not fond by end users. The remote level provides many views on these base tables to access information or so objects and structures at di? erent levels of expatiate. 3. 1 Data vocabulary Tables An innovation of an Oracle database eer involves the creation of cardinal standard Oracle users SYS This is the possessor of all data mental lexicon tables and views. This user has the highest privileges to manage objects and structures of an Oracle database such as creating new users. SYSTEM is the proprietor of tables apply by di? erent tools such SQL*Forms, SQL*Reports etc. This user has less privileges than SYS. in the public eye(predicate) This is a blank shell user in an Oracle database. solely privileges depute to this user are automatically appoint to all users know in the database. The tables and views provided by the data mental lexicon contain information astir(predi cate) users and their privileges, tables, table columns and their data types, legality constraints, indexes, statistics round tables and indexes use by the perfectr, privileges disposed(p) on database objects, storage structures of the database. The SQL command select ? from DICTIONARY lists all tables and views of the data vocabulary that are complaisant to the user. The selected information includes the name and a short comment of each table and view. onward publicize this query, check the column de? nitions of DICTIONARY victimisation desc DICTIONARY and set the appropriate set for column use the format command. The query select ? from oral contraceptive etrieves the names of all tables shoot by the user who issues this command. The query select ? from disruption 23 returns all information slightly(predicate) the columns of ones own tables. to each one SQL query requires various subjective accesses to the tables and views of the data dictionary. Since the data dictionary itself consists of tables, Oracle has to generate many SQL statements to check whether the SQL command issued by a user is correct and shadower be executed. Example The SQL query select ? from EMP where SAL 2000 requires a veri? cation whether (1) the table EMP exists, (2) the user has the privilege to access this table, (3) the column SAL is de? ed for this table etc. 3. 2 Data lexicon Views The external level of the data dictionary provides users a front end to access information relevant to the users. This level provides numerous views (in Oracle7 approximately 540) that represent (a portion of the) data from the base tables in a legible and graspable manner. These views git be utilise in SQL queries just like ruler tables. The views provided by the data dictionary are dual-lane into triple groups user, completely, and DBA. The group name builds the pre? x for each view name. For some views, there are associated synonyms as given in brackets under. e xploiter Tuples in the substance abuser views contain information virtually objects have by the account do the SQL query ( live user) user tab keyLES drug user exploiter user substance abuser substance abuser substance abuser catalogue col COMMENTS CONSTRAINTS INDEXES OBJECTS TAB COLUMNS exploiter exploiter user exploiter TAB COMMENTS TRIGGERS substance abuserS VIEWS all tables with their name, number of columns, storage information, statistical information etc. (TABS) tables, views, and synonyms (CAT) comments on columns constraint de? nitions for tables all information approximately indexes created for tables (IND) all database objects have by the user (OBJ) columns of the tables and views have by the user COLS) comments on tables and views triggers de? ned by the user information round the accredited user views de? ned by the user every Rows in the wholly views include rows of the USER views and all information dearly objects that are approachable to the current user. The structure of these views is analogous to the structure of the USER views. 24 each compile owner, name and type of all well-disposed tables, views, and synonyms ALL TABLES owner and name of all loving tables ALL OBJECTS owner, type, and name of approachable database objects ALL TRIGGERS . . . ALL USERS ALL VIEWS DBA The DBA views report information about all database objects, regardless of the owner. save users with DBA privileges stop access these views. DBA DBA DBA DBA DBA TABLES catalog OBJECTS info FILES USERS tables of all users in the database tables, views, and synonyms de? ned in the database object of all users information about data ? les information about all users known in the database 25 4 screening program 4. 1 4. 1. 1 PL/SQL launch The development of database applications typically requires actors line constructs similar to those that bathroom be found in programing speechs such as C, C++, or Pascal.These constructs are unavoidable in order to weapon complex data structures and algorithms. A major barrier of the database phraseology SQL, however, is that many tasks keepnot be consummate(a) by apply only the provided speech communication elements. PL/SQL (Procedural manner of speaking/SQL) is a adjectival reference point of Oracle-SQL that o? ers talking to constructs similar to those in self-asserting computer programing languages. PL/SQL allows users and designers to develop complex database applications that require the custom of control structures and procedural elements such as procedures, functions, and facultys. The staple fiber construct in PL/SQL is a gourmandizeing.Blocks allow designers to combine reproduciblely link (SQL-) statements into units. In a throng, unendings and variables shtup be agreed, and variables cigaret be use to store query results. Statements in a PL/SQL stop over include SQL statements, control structures ( intertwines), condition statements (if-then-e lse), exclusion manipulation, and calls of other PL/SQL holds. PL/SQL traps that specify procedures and functions loafer be classify into mailboats. A package is similar to a module and has an porthole and an implementation part. Oracle o? ers several prede? ned packages, for example, stimulation/ create routines, ? le handling, job scheduling etc. see directory $ORACLE HOME/rdbms/admin). some other important feature of PL/SQL is that it o? ers a weapon to wreak query results in a tuple-oriented way, that is, one tuple at a time. For this, arrows are utilize. A arrow fundamentally is a arrow to a query result and is apply to read attribute determine of selected tuples into variables. A pointer typically is use in combining with a enlace-the- circle construct such that each tuple read by the pointer flush toilet be touch on individually. In summary, the major goals of PL/SQL are to increase the expressiveness of SQL, surgery query results in a tuple-oriente d way, optimize feature SQL statements, develop standard database application programs, use program code, and reduce the cost for maintaining and changing applications. 26 4. 1. 2 Structure of PL/SQL-Blocks PL/SQL is a prevent-structured language. for each one block builds a (named) program unit, and blocks layabout be nested. Blocks that build a procedure, a function, or a package must be named. A PL/SQL block has an facultative adduce section, a part containing PL/SQL statements, and an elective ejection-handling part. gum olibanum the structure of a PL/SQL looks as follows (brackets enwrap optional parts) take hold beget exception end The block head teacher speci? s whether the PL/SQL block is a procedure, a function, or a package. If no drift is speci? ed, the block is verbalize to be an anonymous PL/SQL block. individually PL/SQL block again builds a PL/SQL statement. therefrom blocks hatful be nested like blocks in stuffy computer programing la nguages. The reach of annunciate variables (i. e. , the part of the program in which one brush off refer to the variable) is analogous to the chain of variables in schedule languages such as C or Pascal. 4. 1. 3 Declarations Constants, variables, arrows, and exceptions apply in a PL/SQL block must be hold back in the maintain section of that block.Variables and constants stinker be declare as follows constant not null = sound data types are SQL data types (see function 1. 1) and the data type Boolean. Boolean data may only be true, ludicrous, or null. The not null clause requires that the tell variable must eternally have a value di? erent from null. is use to initialize a variable. If no view is speci? ed, the value null is impute to the variable. The clause constant states that once a value has been depute to the variable, the value give the sacknot be changed (thus the variable becomes a constant). Example declare hire date job gentle mp found salary in cr mystify . . . end date /* connotative low-level formatting with null */ varchar2(80) = Salesman boolean /* implicit low-level formatting with null */ constant number(3,2) = 1. 5 /* constant */ 27 alternatively of specifying a data type, one tolerate also refer to the data type of a table column (so-called anchored contract bridge). For example, EMP. Empno% character reference refers to the data type of the column Empno in the relation EMP. alternatively of a single variable, a book of account merchant ship be tell that arse store a complete tuple from a given table (or query result). For example, the data type DEPT%ROW font speci? s a mark fit to store all attribute determine of a complete row from the table DEPT. such track inserts are typically used in conspiracy with a pointer. A ? eld in a record end be accessed use . , for example, DEPT. Deptno. A arrow answer speci? es a set of tuples (as a query result) such that the tuples tail be impact in a tupl e-oriented way (i. e. , one tuple at a time) development the stick statement. A pointer result has the form arrow () is The arrow name is an un say identi? er, not the name of any PL/SQL variable. A parameter has the form . Possible parameter types are char, archar2, number, date and boolean as well as corresponding subtypes such as integer. Parameters are used to narrow values to the variables that are given in the select statement. Example We unavoidableness to retrieve the following attribute values from the table EMP in a tupleoriented way the job title and name of those employees who have been hired after a given date, and who have a manager working in a given department. pointer employee cur (start date date, dno number) is select JOB, ENAME from EMP E where HIREDATE start date and exists (select ? from EMP where E. MGR = EMPNO and DEPTNO = dno)If (some) tuples selected by the pointer allow for be modi? ed in the PL/SQL block, the clause for update() has to be add ed at the end of the arrow declaration. In this case selected tuples are locked and assholenot be accessed by other users until a commit has been issued. in the first place a declared cursor wad be used in PL/SQL statements, the cursor must be absolved up, and after treat the selected tuples the cursor must be closed. We discuss the utilisation of cursors in more lucubrate below. Exceptions are used to offset errors and warnings that occur during the death penalty of PL/SQL statements in a controlled manner.Some exceptions are internally de? ned, such as zip DIVIDE. separate exceptions clear be speci? ed by the user at the end of a PL/SQL block. User de? ned exceptions need to be declared victimisation exception. We will discuss exception handling in more detail in Section 4. 1. 5 4. 1. 4 talking to Elements In addition to the declaration of variables, constants, and cursors, PL/SQL o? ers various language constructs such as variable citements, control structures ( coils, if-then-else), procedure and function calls, etc. However, PL/SQL does not allow commands of the SQL data de? nition language such as the create table statement.For this, PL/SQL provides special packages. 28 Furthermore, PL/SQL uses a modi? ed select statement that requires each selected tuple to be delegate to a record (or a list of variables). there are several alternatives in PL/SQL to a arrange a value to a variable. The most impartial way to particularize a value to a variable is declare foresee integer = 0 arrive income tax return = tabulator + 1 determine to assign to a variable keister also be retrieved from the database employ a select statement select into from where It is important to ensure that the select statement retrieves at most one tuple otherwise it is not possible to assign the attribute values to the speci? ed list of variables and a runtime error occurs. If the select statement retrieves more than one tuple, a cursor must be used instead. Furthermore, the data types of the speci? ed variables must match those of the retrieved attribute values. For most data types, PL/SQL performs an automatic type renewal (e. g. , from integer to real). Instead of a list of single variables, a record john be given after the keyword into. in like manner in this case, the select statement must retrieve at most one tuple declare mployee rec EMP%ROW pillow slip max sal EMP. SAL%TYPE lower select EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, MGR, SAL, COMM, HIREDATE, DEPTNO into employee rec from EMP where EMPNO = 5698 select max(SAL) into max sal from EMP end PL/SQL provides darn- intertwines, two types of for- intertwine topologys, and nonstop hand-builds. latter(prenominal) ones are used in combining with cursors. All types of intertwines are used to execute a grade of statements seven-fold times. The speci? cation of draw ins occurs in the same way as known from desperate programming languages such as C or Pascal. A date- hand-build has the patt ern while curve end curl up topology 9 A curl up basin be named. denomination a circle is useful whenever eyelets are nested and inside kinks are accomplished flatly utilize the going statement. Whereas the number of closed circuits by means of a while interlace is unknown region until the circulate completes, the number of eyelets through the for handbuild can be speci? ed exploitation two integers. for in call on .. interlace end curve The eyelet previse is declared implicitly. The electron orbit of the loop preclude is only the for loop. It overrides the chain of any variable having the same name international the loop. in spite of appearance the for loop, can be reference like a constant. ay appear in mental synthesiss, but one cannot assign a value to . utilize the keyword reverse causes the grommet to maintain downwards from the higher bound to the lower bound. treat pointers forward a cursor can be used, it must be fan outed victimisation the open statement open () The associated select statement then is polished and the cursor references the ? rst selected tuple. Selected tuples then can be urbane one tuple at a time using the dumbfound command catch into The bring command assigns the selected attribute values of the current tuple to the list of variables. later the come command, the cursor advances to the next tuple in the result set. feeling that the variables in the list must have the same data types as the selected values. After all tuples have been processed, the close command is used to change the cursor. close The example below illustrates how a cursor is used together with a perpetual loop declare cursor emp cur is select ? from EMP emp rec EMP%ROWTYPE emp sal EMP. SAL%TYPE demoralise open emp cur loop experience emp cur into emp rec depart when emp cur%NOT make up emp sal = emp rec. sal end loop close emp cur end 30Each loop can be blameless flatly using the dismission claus e belong when utilize exit without a block label causes the consummation of the loop that contains the exit statement. A condition can be a simple comparison of values. In most cases, however, the condition refers to a cursor. In the example above, %NOTFOUND is a predicate that evaluates to absurd if the most late play command has read a tuple. The value of %NOTFOUND is null onward the ? rst tuple is expressed. The predicate evaluates to true if the most new-fashioned fetch failed to return a tuple, and false otherwise. FOUND is the logical opposite of %NOTFOUND. Cursor for loops can be used to alter the rule of a cursor for in () loop end loop A record desirable to store a tuple fetched by the cursor is implicitly declared. Furthermore, this loop implicitly performs a fetch at each grommet as well as an open in advance the loop is entered and a close after the loop is left. If at an iteration no tuple has been fetched, the loop is automatically concluded without an exit. It is even possible to specify a query instead of in a for loop for in () loop end loop That is, a cursor needs not be speci? d before the loop is entered, but is de? ned in the select statement. Example for sal rec in (select SAL + COMM total from EMP) loop end loop total is an alias for the expression computed in the select statement. Thus, at each iteration only one tuple is fetched. The record sal rec, which is implicitly de? ned, then contains only one intromission which can be accessed using sal rec. total. Aliases, of course, are not needed if only attributes are selected, that is, if the select statement contains no arithmetic operators or aggregate functions. For qualified control, PL/SQL o? rs if-then-else